MODULE I

Introduction, Elements of communication systems, Examples of analog

communication systems, Frequency bands, Need for modulation.
Noise in communication system, Definitions of Thermal noise (white
noise), Various types of noise -- Shot noise, Partition noise, Flicker noise,
Burst noise, (No analysis required) Signal to noise ratio, Noise factor, Noise
temperature, Narrow band noise.

Prepared By
Anusha Thottingal
AP-ECE
GEC SKP
• The word communicate refers to pass on and the act of
communicating is termed communication
• In a broad sense, the term communication refers to the
transmission of information from one place to the other.
• For long-distance communication, initially humans
employed non-electrical means like drum beats, smoke
signals, running messengers, horses and pigeons.
• The electrical means of communication started with wire
telegraphy in the eighteen forties
• radio at the beginning of the twentieth century. Later, the
use of satellites and fiber optics made communication
even more widespread with an increasing emphasis on
wireless. computer and other data communications.
• The different steps involved in the transmission of information may be
outlined as follows:
1. Origin of information in the mind of the person who wants to
communicate
2. Generation of message signal carrying the information
3. Converting the message signal into electrical form using a suitable
transducer
4. Processing the message signal such that it will have the capability to
travel for a long distance
5. Transmission of the processed message signal. to the desired
destination
6. Reception of the processed message signal at the desired destination
7. Processing the received. message signal in such a way to recreate the
original non-electrical form
8. Finally delivering the information from the message signal to the
intended person
ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
1. INFORMATION SOURCE
• The information comes from the information source, which originates
it.
• Information may include some thought, news, feeling, visual scene,
and so on
• The information source converts this information into a physical
quantity.
• This physical manifestation of the information is termed as message
signal
• the message signal usually in non-electrical form.
• For electrical communication purpose, first we need to convert the
message signal to the electrical form, which is achieved using a
suitable transducer
• Transducer is a device which converts energy in one form to the other.
• The electrical version of the message signal is the actual input to the
transmitter block of the communication system.
2. TRANSMITTER
• The objective of the transmitter block is to
collect the incoming message signal and
modify it in a suitable fashion (if needed), such
that, it can be transmitted via the chosen
channel to the receiving point.
• Channel is a physical medium which connects
the transmitter block with the receiver block.
• The functionality of the transmitter block is
mainly decided by the type or nature of the
channel chosen for communication.
• The block diagram of typical radio transmitter
• They perform operations like amplification, generation
of high-frequency carrier signal, modulation and then
radiation of the modulated signal.
• The amplification process essentially involves
amplifying the signal amplitude values and also adding
required power levels.
• The high-frequency signal is essential for carrying out an
important operation called modulation
• This high-frequency signal is commonly termed carrier and is
generated by a stable oscillator.
• The carrier signal is characterized by three parameters
amplitude, frequency and phase.
• The modulation process involves varying one of these three
parameters in accordance with the variation of the message
signal.
• Accordingly, we have amplitude modulation, frequency
modulation and phase modulation.
• The modulated signal from the modulator is transmitted or
radiated into the atmosphere using an antenna as the
transducer. Which converts the signal energy in guided wave
form to free space electromagnetic waves and vice versa
3. CHANNEL
• Channel is the physical medium which connects the transmitter with
that of the receiver.
• It can be copper wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, wave guide
and free space or atmosphere.
• The choice of a particular channel depends on the feasibility and
also the purpose of communication system.
• The nature of modification of message signal in the transmitter
block is based on the choice of the communication channel.
• This is because the message signal should smoothly travel through
the channel with least opposition so that maximum information can
be delivered to the receiver.
• the amount message signal which finally reaches the receiver
depends on the characteristics of the channel
• channel is often used to refer to the frequency range allocated to a
particular service or transmission, such as television channel which
refers to the allowable carrier bandwidth with modulation.
4. RECEIVER
• The receiver block receives the incoming
modified version of the message signal from the
channel and processes it to recreate The original
(non electrical) form of the message signal.
• The type of receiver to be used depends on the
processing required to recreate the original
message signal and also final presentation of the
message to the destination.
• Mostly prefer Super heterodyne receiver
because it is simple.
• The super heterodyne receiver includes processing
steps like reception. amplification, mixing,
demodulation and recreation of message signal.
• demodulation is the most important one which
converts the message signal available in the modified
form to the original electrical version of the message.
• the transmitter and receiver must be in agreen1ent
with modulation methods used.

Block diagram of an AM super heterodyne receiver.

5. DESTINATION
• The destination is the final block in the
communication system which receives the
message signal and processes it to comprehend
the information present in it.
• Usually, humans will be the destination block.
• The incoming message signal via speech mode is
processed by the speech perception system to
comprehend the information.
• The message signal via video or visual scene and
written script is processed by the visual perception
system to comprehend the information
 NEED FOR MODULATION
• The term modulate means regulate.
• The process of regulating is modulation.
• for regulation we need one physical quantity
which is to be regulated and another physical
quantity which dictates regulation.
• In electrical communication, the signal to be
regulated is termed as carrier.
• The signal which dictates regulation is termed
as modulating signal.
• Message acts as modulating signal
• The distance that can be travelled by a signal in an
open atmosphere is directly (inversely)
proportional to its frequency (wavelength).
• Most of the message signals like speech and music
are in the audio frequency range (20 H.z-20 kHz)
and hence they can travel for few meters on their
own.
• for efficient radiation and reception, the
transmitting and receiving antennas would have to
have length comparable to a quarter-wavelength of
the frequency used.
• message at 1 MHz, its wavelength is 300 m and
hence antenna length should be about 75 m.
• Most of the messages concentrated within the same range
(20 Hz-20 kHz for speech and music, few MHz for video), so
signals from the different sources may inseparably mixed up.
• In order to separate the various signals, it is necessary to
convert them all to different portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
• Each must be given its own carrier frequency. This overcome
the difficulties of poor radiation at low frequencies and
reduces interference.
• A tuned circuit is employed in the front end of the receiver
to make sure that the desired section of the spectrum is
admitted and all unwanted ones are rejected.
• The tuning of such a circuit is made variable and connected
to the tuning control, so that the receiver can select any
desired transmission within a predetermined range.
• modulation process helps in shifting the message signal frequencies to a very
high frequency range where it occupy only negligible percentage of the
spectrum.
• more number of message signals can be accommodated at higher
frequencies.
• An unmodulated carrier has a constant amplitude, constant frequency and a
constant phase.
• A message consists of varying quantities.
• Eg: Speech, is made up of rapid and unpredictable variations in amplitude
(volume) and frequency (pitch and resonances).
• In continuous wave modulation (amplitude or frequency modulation, but not
pulse modulation) one of the parameters of the carrier is varied by the
message.
• at any instant its deviation from the unmodulated value (resting freq.) is
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage, and
the rate at which this deviation takes place is equal to the frequency of this
signal.
• This way enough information about the instantaneous amplitude and
frequency is transmitted to enable the receiver to recreate the original
message.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• electromagnetic (EM) wave is a signal made of
oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
• the signal information is manifested as
changing electric and magnetic field intensities
at specified number of times per second.
• The oscillations are sinusoidal in nature and
measured as cycles per second or hertz (Hz).
• The entire range of frequencies that the EM
wave can produce oscillations is termed as
Electromagnetic spectrum.
• Each range is identified by end frequencies or wavelengths that differ by a
factor of 10.
• I khz: 10^3, 1 MHZ: 10^6, 1 GHZ: 10^9HZ, I THZ: 10^12HZ
 TERMINOLOGIES
• Time(t): is a fundamental quantity with reference
to which all communications happen. It is typically
measured in seconds (sec).
• Frequency(f): the reference with which all signals in
a communication system are distinguished.
Frequency is defined as the number of oscillations
per second and is measured ill hertz (Hz).
• Wavelength (λ): used as an alternative to
frequency for distinguishing communication
signals. Wavelength is defined as the distance
travelled by an EM wave during the time of one
cycle.
• Spectrum: The frequency domain representation of
the given signal.
• Bandwidth: The portion of the EM spectrum
occupied by a signal. The range of frequencies over
which the information is present in the original
signal and hence it may also be termed as signal
bandwidth
• Channel Bandwidth: The range of frequencies
required for the transmission of modulated signal.
• Modulation: In terms of signal and channel
bandwidths, modulation is a process of
transforming signal from signal bandwidth to
channel bandwidth
• Demodulation: transforming signal from
channel bandwidth to signal bandwidth.
• Baseband Signal: Message signal in its original
frequency range.
• Baseband Transmission: Transmission of
message signal in its original frequency range.
• Broadband Signal: Message signal in its
modulated frequency range.
• Broadband Transmission: Transmission of
message signal in the modulated frequency
range
 NOISE
• Any unwanted introduction of energy tending to interfere
with the proper reception and reproduction of transmitted
signals.
• This may modifying the signal in an unwanted manner.
• In radio receivers, noise produce hiss in the loudspeaker
output.
• In television receivers colored snow becomes superimposed
on the picture.
• Noise can limit the range of systems, for a given transmitted
power.
• It affects the sensitivity of receivers, by placing a limit on the
weakest signals that can be amplified.
• It may sometimes even force a reduction in the bandwidth of
a system.
• Noise broadly divided in to groups: noise
whose sources are external to the receiver,
and noise created within the receiver itself.
• External noise is difficult to treat
quantitatively, and there is often little that
can be reduced.
• Internal noise is both more quantifiable and
capable of being reduced by appropriate
receiver design.
• EXTERNAL NOISE
• For a given geographical point or location, external
noise can not be controlled.
• Thus, to reduce the effect of external noise, the only
way is to shift the communication system to another
place or location which has comparatively smaller
external noise.
• Thus due to this reason, the satellites’ earth stations
are generally located in noise-free valleys.
• External Noise may be classified as under:
• Atmospheric Noise
• Extraterrestrial Noise
• Industrial Noise
Atmospheric Noise
• Atmospheric noise, generally called static.
• Static is caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms and
other natural electric disturbances occurring in the
atmosphere.
• It originates in the form of amplitude-modulated impulses
and random in nature, it is spread over most of the RF
spectrum normally used for broadcasting.
• It has been observed that the field strength of atmospheric
noise varies approximately inversely with the frequency.
• So, large atmospheric noise is produced in low and medium
frequency bands whereas very small noise is produced in the
VHF and UHF bands.
• Atmospheric noise becomes less severe at frequencies above
about 30MHz
• 2. Extraterrestrial Noise

• There are several types of extraterrestrial noise or space

noise depending upon their sources. Extraterrestrial noise
may be divided into the following two sub-groups as under:
• (i) Solar Noise
• (ii) Cosmic Noise
• (i) Solar Noise: under normal " quiet'' conditions, there is a
constant noise radiation from the sun, simply because it is
a large body at a very high temperature.
• It radiates over a very broad frequency spectrum which
includes the frequencies we use for communication.
• During corona flares and sunspots additional noise
produced comes from A limited portion of the sun's surface
• Cosmic Noise: Since distant stars are also suns and
have high temperatures, they radiate RF noise in the
same manner as our sun.
• The noise received is called thennal (or black-body)
noise and is distributed fairly uniformly over the
entire sky
• This type of noise is quite intense but since it comes
from very distant sources, the angle subtended by
the earth is quite small.
• Therefore the strength of noise received on the earth
gets diminished.
• space noise is observable at frequencies in the range
from about 8 MHz to somewhat above 1.43 gigahertz
• Industrial Noise: Industrial noise or man-made
noise is that type of noise which is produced by
such sources as automobiles and aircraft ignition,
electrical motors, switch gears and leakage from
high voltages transmission line and several other
heavy electrical equipment.
• Such a type of noise is produced by the arc
discharge taking place during the operation of all
these machines or equipment.
• Industrial noise is quite intensive in industrial areas,
densely populated urban areas.
• Since industrial or man-made noise is highly
variable and hence can be analyzed only statistically.
 INTERNAL NOISE

• Noise created by any of the active or passive devices found in receivers.

• Internal noise may be treated quantitatively and can also be reduced or
minimized by proper system design.
• Since internal noise is randomly distributed over the entire frequency
spectrum, the noise present in a given bandwidth B is the same at any
frequency in the frequency spectrum.
• Hence, this random noise power is proportional to the bandwidth over
which it is measured.
• Internal noise may be classified as under:
• Shot Noise
• Partition Noise
• Low frequency or Flicker Noise
• High frequency or Transit time Noise
• Thermal Noise
 Thermal/Agitation/White/Gaussian Noise
• It is due to the rapid and random motion of the molecules
(atoms and electrons) inside the component itself.
• kinetic theory shows that the temperature of a particle is
a way of expressing its internal kinetic energy.
• the "temperature" of a body is the statistical root mean
square (rms) value of the velocity of motion of the
particles in the body.
• kinetic energy of these particles becomes approximately
zero {i.e., their motion ceases) at the temperature of
absolute zero, which is O kelvins.
• The noise generated by a resistor is proportional to its
absolute temperature, in addition to being proportional to
the bandwidth over which the noise is to be measured.
• α T = kT
• k, = Boltzmann's constant= 1.38 x 10^-23
J(Joules)/K the appropriate
proportionality constant in this case
• T absolute temperature, K = 273 + °C
• bandwidth of interest
• maximum noise power output of a resistor
varies directly
• It must be realized that all formulas referring to
random noise arc applicable only to the rms
value of such noise, not to its instantaneous
value, which is quite unpredictable
 Shot Noise
 The most important of all the other sources is the
shot effect, which leads to shot noise in all
amplifying devices and virtually all active devices
 It is caused by random variations in the arrival of
electrons ( or holes) at the output electrode of an
amplifying device and appears as a randomly
varying noise current superimposed on the
output.
 Shot noise behaves in a similar manner to
thermal agitation noise, apart from the fact that it
has a different source.
• Many variables are involved in the generation of
this noise in the various amplifying devices, and so
it is customary to use approximate equations for it.
• The most convenient method of dealing with shot
noise is to find the value or fortnula for an
equivalent input-noise resistor.
• The noise current has been replaced by a
resistance so that it is now easier to add shot noise
to thermal noise.
• The value of the equivalent shot-noise resistance
R.eq of a device is generally quoted in the
manufacturer's specifications.
• Shot noise is inversely proportional to
transconductance and also directly proportional
to output current.
 Partition Noise
 When a circuit is to divide in between two or
more paths then the noise generated is known as
Partition noise. The reason for the generation is
random fluctuation in the division.
 Hence, it is expected that a diode must be less
noisy than a transistor, all else being equal.
 Flicker Noise
 At low frequencies (below a few kHz), a particular
type of noise appears.
 The power spectral density of this noise increases
as the frequency decreases.
 This noise is called flicker noise or (1/f) noise.
 In semiconductor devices, flicker noise is
generated from the fluctuations in the carrier
density and creates more problems in
semiconductor amplifying devices than in Vaccum
tubes at low frequencies.
• Actually, the fluctuations in the carrier density
generate fluctuations in the conductivity of the
material.
• This produces a fluctuating voltage drop when a direct
current flows.
• This fluctuating voltage drop is called the flicker-noise
voltage.
• The power density spectrum of the flicker noise is
inversely proportional to frequency.
• Mathematically,

 Therefore, the flicker noise becomes significant at

very low frequencies, generally below a few kHz.
 Burst Noise
 Burst noise or popcorn noise is a little known form of
noise these days.
 It appears as of sudden step transitions between
different level which can manifest itself as a transient
at the output of the electronic equipment.
 This form of noise may not affect some circuits much,
but others it can provide some particular problems
and issues.
 Burst noise, or popcorn noise was an issue when the
first operational amplifiers were introduced. It made
a noise like cooking popcorn if sent to a loudspeaker -
hence the name
• Tcause for this noise is random trapping and release of charge
carriers at thin film interfaces.
• Also defect sites in bulk semiconductor crystal can give rise to burst
noise.

• These defects can be caused by manufacturing process issues: e.g.

heavy ion implantation, or unintentional side-effects such as surface
contamination. As the effect is a result of a manufacturing issue,
offending ICs can be detected and removed during manufacture.

• Owing to the high standards used in semiconductor manufacturing

these days, burst noise is not at all common. However when it does
occur, it can be difficult to trace and track down, and as a result it is
worth understanding that it exists and the mechanism behind it.