III-Topic 5 Finding The Answers To The Research Questions (Data Analysis Method)

FINDING THE ANSWERS
TO THE RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
(DATA ANALYSIS METHOD)
WEEK 8
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
a. gathers and analyzes data with intellectual honesty

using suitable techniques;
b. identify the differences and similarities of Qualitative
and Quantitative Data.
DATA ANALYSIS METHODS
In reporting the results, the researcher stays close to the statistical findings
without drawing broader implications or meaning from them. Further, this
section includes summaries of the data rather than the raw data (e.g., the
actual scores for individuals). A results section includes tables, figures, and
detailed explanations about the statistical results.
Before writing this section:

•Rewrite the Chapters 1-3 before or after data analysis and before writing
Chapter 4.
•Rewrite the chapters in past tense, wherever applicable, and make
corrections for actual data collection and data analysis procedures.
DATA ANALYSIS METHODS
What is the first thing that comes to mind when we see data? The first
instinct is to find patterns, connections, and relationships. We look at the
data to find meaning in it.
Similarly, in research, once data is collected, the next step is to get

insights from it. For example, if a clothing brand is trying to identify the
latest trends among young women, the brand will first reach out to young
women and ask them questions relevant to the research objective. After
collecting this information, the brand will analyze that data to identify
patterns — for example, it may discover that most young women would
like to see more variety of jeans.
ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA
Qualitative data analysis works a little differently from
quantitative data, primarily because qualitative data is made
up of words, observations, images, and even symbols.
Deriving absolute meaning from such data is nearly
impossible; hence, it is mostly used for exploratory research.
While in quantitative research there is a clear distinction
between the data preparation and data analysis stage,
analysis for qualitative research often begins as soon as the
data is available.
DATA PREPARATION AND BASIC DATA
ANALYSIS
Analysis and preparation happen in parallel and include the
following steps:
1.Getting familiar with the data
2.Revisiting research objectives
3.Developing a framework
4.Identifying patterns and connections
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS METHODS
Several methods are available to analyze qualitative data. The
most commonly used data analysis methods are:
• Content analysis
• Narrative analysis
• Framework analysis
• Discourse analysis
• Grounded theory
Those methods are the ones used most commonly. However,
other data analysis methods, such as conversational analysis,
are also available.
Qualitative data analysis can also be conducted through the

following three steps:
Step 1: Developing and Applying Codes
Coding can be explained as categorization of data. A ‘code’

can be a word or a short phrase that represents a theme or an
idea. All codes need to be assigned meaningful titles. A wide
range of non-quantifiable elements such as events,
behaviors, activities, meanings etc. can be coded.
There are three types of coding:
1. Open coding. The initial organization of raw data to try to
make sense of it.
2. Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the categories
of codes.
3. Selective coding. Formulating the story through
connecting the categories.
Step 2: Identifying themes, patterns and relationships.
Unlike quantitative methods, in qualitative data analysis there are no

universally applicable techniques that can be applied to generate
findings. Analytical and critical thinking skills of researcher plays
significant role in data analysis in qualitative studies. Therefore, no
qualitative study can be repeated to generate the same results.
Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you can use to identify

common themes, patterns and relationships within responses of
sample group members in relation to codes that have been specified
in the previous stage.
Specifically, the most popular and effective methods of qualitative
data interpretation include the following:
•Word and phrase repetitions – scanning primary data for words and
phrases most commonly used by respondents, as well as, words and
phrases used with unusual emotions;
•Primary and secondary data comparisons – comparing the findings
of interview/focus group/observation/any other qualitative data
collection method with the findings of literature review and
discussing differences between them; and differences.
•Search for missing information – discussions about which aspects
of the issue was not mentioned by respondents, although you
expected them to be mentioned;
•Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary research findings

to phenomena from a different area and discussing similarities and
differences.
Step 3: Summarizing the data.
At this last stage you need to link research findings to

hypotheses or research aim and objectives. When writing data
analysis chapter, you can use noteworthy quotations from the
transcript in order to highlight major themes within findings and
possible contradictions.
It is important to note that the process of qualitative data analysis

described above is general and different types of qualitative
studies may require slightly different methods of data analysis.
ANALYZING QUANTITATIVE DATA
Data Preparation
The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim
is to convert raw data into something meaningful and readable. It
includes four steps:
Step 1: Data Validation

The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far as possible,
whether the data collection was done as per the pre-set standards
and without any bias.
ANALYZING QUANTITATIVE DATA
Data validation is a four step process, which includes…
• Fraud, to infer whether each respondent was actually
interviewed or not.
• Screening, to make sure that respondents were chosen as per
the research criteria.
• Procedure, to check whether the data collection procedure was
duly followed.
• Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer asked the
respondent all the questions, rather than just a few required ones.
Step 2: Data Editing
Typically, large data sets include errors. For example,
respondents may fill fields incorrectly or skip them
accidentally. To make sure that there are no such errors, the
researcher should conduct basic data checks, check for
outliers, and edit the raw research data to identify and clear out
any data points that may hamper the accuracy of the results.
For example, an error could be fields that were left empty by
respondents. While editing the data, it is important to make
sure to remove or fill all the empty fields.
Step 3: Data Coding
This is one of the most important steps in data preparation. It refers
to grouping and assigning values to responses from the survey.
For example, if a researcher has interviewed 1,000 people and now
wants to find the average age of the respondents, the researcher will
create age buckets and categorize the age of each of the respondent
as per these codes. (For example, respondents between 13-15 years
old would have their age coded as 0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.)
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS METHODS
After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The two most
commonly used quantitative data analysis methods are descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics
Typically descriptive statistics (also known as descriptive analysis)
is the first level of analysis. It helps researchers summarize the data
and find patterns.
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS METHODS
After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The two most
commonly used quantitative data analysis methods are descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics
Typically descriptive statistics (also known as descriptive analysis)
is the first level of analysis. It helps researchers summarize the data
and find patterns.
A few commonly used descriptive statistics are:
• Mean: numerical average of a set of values.
• Median: midpoint of a set of numerical values.
• Mode: most common value among a set of values.
• Percentage: used to express how a value or group of
respondents within the data relates to a larger group of
respondents.
• Frequency: the number of times a value is found.
• Range: the highest and lowest value in a set of values.
Descriptive statistics provide absolute numbers. However,
they do not explain the rationale or reasoning behind those
numbers. Before applying descriptive statistics, it’s
important to think about which one is best suited for your
research question and what you want to show. For example,
a percentage is a good way to show the gender distribution
of respondents.
Descriptive statistics are most helpful when the research is
limited to the sample and does not need to be generalized to
a larger population. For example, if you are comparing the
percentage of children vaccinated in two different villages,
then descriptive statistics is enough.
Since descriptive analysis is mostly used for analyzing

single variable, it is often called univariate analysis.
INTELLECTUAL HONESTY IN RESEARCH
Intellectual Honesty is an applied method of problem
solving, characterized by an unbiased, honest attitude, which
can be demonstrated in a number of different ways
including:
• Ensuring support for chosen ideologies does not interfere
with the pursuit of truth;
• Relevant facts and information are not purposefully
omitted even when such things may contradict one's
hypothesis;
INTELLECTUAL HONESTY IN RESEARCH
• Facts are presented in an unbiased manner, and not twisted

to give misleading impressions or to support one view over
another;
• References, or earlier work, are acknowledged where
possible, and plagiarism is avoided.
TEN SIGNS OF INTELLECTUAL HONESTY
1. Do not overstate the power of your argument.
2. Show willingness to publicly acknowledge that
reasonable alternative viewpoints exist.
3. Be willing to publicly acknowledge and question one’s
own assumptions and biases.
4. Be willing to publicly acknowledge where your argument
is weak.
5. Be willing to publicly acknowledge when you are wrong.
6. Demonstrate consistency.
7. Address the argument instead of attacking the person
making the argument.
8. When addressing an argument, do not misrepresent it.
9. Show a commitment to critical thinking.
10. Be willing to publicly acknowledge when a point or
criticism is good.
While no one is perfect, and even those who strive for
intellectual honesty can have a bad day, simply be on
the lookout for how many and how often these criteria
apply to someone. In the arena of public discourse, it
is not intelligence or knowledge that matters most – it
is whether you can trust the intelligence or knowledge
of another.
After all, intelligence and knowledge can sometimes
be the best tools of an intellectually dishonest
approach.
THANK YOU! 

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FINDING THE ANSWERS

a. gathers and analyzes data with intellectual honesty

Before writing this section:

Similarly, in research, once data is collected, the next step is to get

Qualitative data analysis can also be conducted through the

Coding can be explained as categorization of data. A ‘code’

Unlike quantitative methods, in qualitative data analysis there are no

Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you can use to identify

•Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary research findings

At this last stage you need to link research findings to

It is important to note that the process of qualitative data analysis

Step 1: Data Validation

Since descriptive analysis is mostly used for analyzing

• Facts are presented in an unbiased manner, and not twisted

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