AI

The theory and development of computer systems(machines) able to

perform tasks that normally require human intelligence.
perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information
AI applications include :
advanced web search engines (e.g.google)
Recommendation systems(used by YouTube,Amazon and Netflix ML), 
understanding human speech(such as siri and Alexa), self-driving cars
(e.g., Tesla), 
automated decision-making and competing at the highest level
in strategic game systems (such as chess and Go).
Simulate human mind and learning behavior.
Intelligence
abilities to creating systems that understand, think, learn, and behave
like humans.
learn from experience, adapt to new situations
The automation of activities that we associate with human
thinking(intelligence) (e.g., decision-making, learning…)
• The study of how to make computers solve problems which require
knowledge and intelligence .
AI is the study and construction of rational agents (an agent that
perceives and acts.
Goal
To Create Expert Systems, To Implement Human Intelligence in
Machines.
Thinking humanly,
acting humanly,
Thinking Rationally,
acting Rationally.
Formally initiated in 1956
name AI was coined by John McCarthy
Characteristics of Intelligent system
• Use vast amount of knowledge
• Learn from experience and adopt to changing environment
• Interact with human using language and speech
• Respond in real time
• Tolerate error and ambiguity in communication
• Traditional paradigms: Programs = data structure + algorithm
• AI programming paradigms: Programs = knowledge structure + inference mechanism
Shifts from procedural to declarative programming paradigm:
• Rather than telling the computer how to compute a solution, a program consists of a
knowledge base of facts and relationships.
• Rather than running a program to obtain a solution, the user asks question so that the
system searches through the KB to determine the answer.
An agent perceiving its environment through sensors and acting upon that environment
through actuators/ effectors.
Property
• Autonomous • Reactive to the environment • Pro-active (goal-directed) • Interacts with
other agents via the environment.
Eg. robot vacuum cleaner, Automated taxi driving system, Automated taxi driving system,
Interactive English tutor

• Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance. • Percept Sequence − It is the

history of all that an agent has perceived till date. • Agent Function − It is a map from the
precept sequence to an action.
 sub-fields
• Natural Language processing (computers communicate in human language)
•Machine learning (adapt to new circumstances and accumulate knowledge)
• Computer vision (recognize objects, image understanding based on patterns.)
• Robotics (produce mechanical device( see, hear & take actions, autonomous)
•Neural Networks – e.g. brain modeling, time series prediction, classification
• Expert Systems – e.g. decision support systems, teaching systems
• Speech Processing(recognition and production).
• Knowledge representation (schemes to store information, both facts and
inferences, before and during interrogation) .
• Automated reasoning (use stored information to answer questions and to draw
new conclusions).
 ML
Machine Learning algorithms enable the computers to learn from data, and even improve
themselves, without being explicitly programmed.
decision making and predictions.
1) Supervised Learning Algorithm
Also called learning by example.
AI system is presented with data which is labeled.
 Classification: A classification problem is when the output variable is a category, such
as “red” or “blue” or “disease” and “no disease”.
 predicts discrete values. For example, classification models make predictions that answer questions
like the following:
 Is a given email message spam or not spam?
 Is this an image of a dog, a cat, or a got?
 Regression: A regression problem is when the output variable is a real value, such as
“dollars” or “weight”. predicts continuous values.
value of a house in Addis Ababa?
What is the probability that a user will click on this ad?
2) In unsupervised learning
an AI system is presented with unlabeled, uncategorized data and the system’s algorithms act on the data without prior training.
The output is dependent upon the coded algorithms. Subjecting a system to unsupervised learning is one way of testing AI.
 Clustering: A clustering problem is where you want to discover the inherent groupings in the data, such as grouping customers by
purchasing behavior.
 Clustering identifies hidden data patterns in an uncategorized/unlabeled dataset based on the similarities or differences
in the dataset as in market segmentation.

 Association: An association rule learning problem is where you want to discover rules that describe large portions of your data, such
as people that buy X also tend to buy Y.
 Association rules allow you to establish associations amongst data objects inside large datasets by identifying
relationships between variables in a given dataset, as in market basket analysis and recommendation engines.

3) reinforcement learning algorithm

learns by interacting with its environment. receives rewards by performing correctly and penalties for performing incorrectly. Try to
maximizing its reward and minimizing its penalty(punishment) with out intervention.

Labels
A label is the thing we're predicting—the y variable in simple linear regression. The label could be the future price of wheat, the kind of
animal shown in a picture, the meaning of an audio clip, or just about anything. Features
A feature is an input variable—the x variable in simple linear regression. A simple machine learning project might use a single feature,
while a more sophisticated machine learning project could use millions of features, specified as: x1,x2,...xN
In the spam detector example, the features could include the following: •words in the email text •sender's address •time of day the
email was sent •email contains the phrase "one weird trick“.
Models
A model defines the relationship between features and label.
For example, a spam detection model might associate certain features
strongly with "spam". Let's highlight two phases of a model's life:
•Training means creating or learning the model. That is, you show the
model labeled examples and enable the model to gradually learn the
relationships between features and label.
•Inference means applying the trained model to unlabeled examples.
That is, you use the trained model to make useful predictions (y'). For
example, during inference, you can predict median HouseValue for new
unlabeled examples.
 If you have lesser amount of data and clearly labelled data for training,
opt for Supervised Learning. Unsupervised Learning would generally
give better performance and results for large data sets.
A child playing with toys can arrange them by identifying patterns
based on colors, shapes, sizes, or just based on their interests. The kid
discovers new ways to cluster the toys without needing external
supervision is similar to unsupervised learning.
Unsupervised learning identifies hidden patterns and relationships in an
unlabeled dataset by grouping data into clusters or by association.
E.g. of association recommendation system.
The two main characteristics of RL are trial and error search and
delayed rewards like delayed gratification.
Reinforcement learning is applied in Robotics, Self-driving cars,
evaluating trading strategies and adaptive controls.
A software engineering perspective on engineering machine learning
systems: State of the art and challenges
 Introduction
ML algorithms, which have been around for many decades, empowered software-
intensive systems for providing additional beneficial functionalities. Some of the
remarkable tasks that are successfully tackled by ML algorithms include
autonomous driving ,social network analysis ,natural language processing ,image
recognition ,and recommendation .Compelling examples of ML systems can be
seen in various sectors, including finance ,healthcare , and manufacturing ,etc.
Despite several promising examples, 47% of AI projects remain prototypes due to
the lack of the tools to develop and maintain a production-grade AI system,
according to Gartner Research .
ML systems engineering in real-world settings is challenging since it adds
additional complexity to engineering ‘‘traditional’’ software. We have separate
bodies of knowledge for engineering ML capabilities and engineering traditional
software.
On the other hand, ML capabilities are generally served as parts of larger
software-intensive systems (besides embedded software in robots or vehicles).
Therefore, we need a holistic view of engineering software-intensive systems with
ML capabilities (ML systems) in real-world settings. Many researchers from
software engineering (SE) and MLhave stated the requirement of such a holistic
view
The Software Engineering for Machine Learning Applications (SEMLA)
international symposium (Khomh et al., 2018) was arranged to bring
together researchers and practitioners in SE and ML to explore the
challenges and implications of engineering ML systems. In 2018,
twomain topics were addressed intensively in SEMLA.
(1) How can software development teams incorporate ML related
activities into existing software processes?
(2) What new roles, artifacts, and activities would be required to
develop ML systems?
Realizing Artificial Intelligence Synergies in Software Engineering
(RAISE).
Christian Kästner at Carnegie Mellon University started to deliver a
course called ‘‘Software Engineering for AI-Enabled Systems ,which
takes an SE perspective on building software systems with a significant
ML component .
events is QCon.ai, which aims to bring SE and ML practitioners together
to exchange experiences and thoughts on all aspects of SE for ML.
This study aims to present the state of the art on software engineering
for ML systems.
. This paper can serve as a starting point to obtain such a holistic view
and a repository of papers to explore this topic.
The goal of this paper is to summarize the state-of-the-art and identify
challenges when engineering ML systems.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the name of the field involving the efforts for
building intelligent agents.
Intelligent agents perceive their environment and try to achieve their
goals by acting autonomously.
Machine learning (ML) is a subfield of AI, which tries to acquire
knowledge by extracting patterns from raw data and solve some
problems using this knowledge. Deep Learning (DL) is a subfield of ML
that focuses on creating large neural network models capable of making
accurate data-driven decisions.
DL has emerged from research in AI and ML and is particularly suited to
contexts where large datasets are available and the data is complex.
ML , since first time since the invention of FORTRAN and LISP’’
Based on the dataset representation and the approach to defining the
candidate models and final model (or function), three different
categories of ML are identified: supervised, unsupervised, and
reinforcement learning .In supervised learning, an ML model (or a
function mapping inputs to outputs) is constructed using a training
dataset with labels. Classification and regression problems are typical
examples of supervised learning. In unsupervised learning, a function to
describe a hidden structure is inferred from unlabeled data. Common
problems for unsupervised learning are clustering and association rule
learning. In reinforcement learning, an agent learns from a series of
reinforcements, i.e., rewards and punishments . Reinforcement learning
finds lots of uses in video games.
 Traditional software and machine learning systems
Engineering traditional software (or conventional software Druffel and
Little, 1990) is about the implementation of programs (arithmetic &
logic operations, a sequence of if-then-else rules, etc.) explicitly by
engineers in the form of source code. On the contrary, in ML systems,
ML algorithms search through a large space of candidate programs,
driven by training experience, to find a program that optimizes the
performance metric (i.e., fulfills the requirements). in other words, learn
a function that maps from inputs to outputs.
DL
n large enough datasets are available and is particularly useful for the
tasks in complex high-dimensional domains such as face recognition and
machine translation.
Traditional web service or a mobile application development.
SE for ML and ML for SE
ML community focuses on algorithms and their performance, whereas
the SE community focuses on implementing and deploying software
intensive systems.
SE for ML refers to addressing various SE tasks for engineering ML
systems, i.e., designing, developing, and maintaining ML-enabled
software systems.
ML for SE refers to applying or adapting AI technologies to address
various SE tasks ,such as software fault prediction (Malhotra, 2015),
code smell detection ,reusability metrics prediction.
This paper focuses on SE for ML by systematically reviewing the SE
literature on engineering ML systems,
for evaluating and improving the quality of ML systems, ML systems’
safety and security, testing ML systems, good and bad SE design patterns
for ML systems, standardize ML system development processes…
Research methods
systematic mapping study (SMS)
Simple literature review(SLR)
Multiple linear regression (MLR), also known simply as multiple
regression, is a statistical technique that uses several explanatory
variables to predict the outcome of a response variable.
A .Goal
An SLR approach was adopted to synthesize the knowledge of engineering
ML systems from an SE perspective.
The scope and goal of this study were formulated using the Goal-Question-
Metric approach as follows. Analyze the state-of-the-art in engineering
machine learning systems for the purpose of exploration and analysis with
respect to the reported challenges; proposed solutions; the intensity of the
research in the area; the research methods from the point of view of
software engineering researchers in the context of software engineering.
RQ1. What research methods were used? RQ2. What application scenarios
and datasets were used for in experiments and case studies? RQ3. Which
challenges and solutions for engineering ML systems were raised by SE
researchers? challenge on requirements engineering, design, software
development and tools, testing and quality, maintenance and configuration
management, software engineering process and management, or
organizational aspects.
Some examples related to testing are as follows: (1) ‘‘Existing testing
methodologies always fail to include rare inputs in the testing dataset and
exhibit low neuron coverage.’’ (Guo et al., 2018); (2) ‘‘Deep neural networks
lack an explicit control-flow structure, making it impossible to apply to them
traditional software testing criteria such as code coverage.’’ ; (3) ‘‘Unlike
software bugs, model bugs cannot be easily fixed by directly modifying
models.
B. primary study selection
2 db search I started by applying the database (DB) search method to
identify relevant primary studies. I used five widely used online databases,
i.e., ACM, IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, Springer, Google Scholar, and Wiley.
. I used two search strings to query online databases: Query 1: ‘‘software
engineering’’ AND ‘‘machine learning’’; Query 2: ‘‘software engineering’’ AND ‘‘deep
learning’’.
3. Backward and forward snowballing To ensure the inclusion of relevant primary
studies
I conducted backward and forward snowballing
4 Manual search To enrich the primary study pool, I conducted a manual search in
two top SE conference proceedings (ICSE and ESEC/FSE)
1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria
To identify the relevant primary studies
(1) The paper should be about an ML system or component; (2) The paper should
mention at least one challenge on requirements engineering, design, software
development and tools, testing…
5 De-duplication I manually entered the metadata of primary studies (e.g., title,
abstract, keywords, publication year, venue, etc.)
6 Quality assessment
To assess the quality of primary studies, I used the quality assessment criteria
 C . Data extraction
After selecting the primary studies, I started with the data extraction
phase. I formed an initial data extraction form (Table 6) based on my
RQs.
D. Data synthesis and reporting
I conducted open coding (Miles and Huberman, 1994) to analyze the
challenges and solutions.
results

1. What research methods were used?

experiment, is primarily used in studies addressing testing and quality.
one study may involve more than one research method and may cover
more than one SE knowledge area.
2.What application scenarios and datasets were used for in experiments
and case studies?
Image classification is the most popular application scenario used in 57
primary studies. The reason behind this could be the availability of many
public datasets. Image classification involves assigning predefined labels
to images based on objects they contain.
object detection aims to produce a list of object categories present in an
image,
Twenty studies included a classification scenario other than image
classification. Some examples include sentiment classification ,credit risk
category prediction ,income category classification ,and disease
prediction.
The third most popular application scenario is autonomous driving.
Autonomous driving includes many ML tasks, including image
classification, object (like pedestrian) detection, predicting steering
wheel angle.
Two examples of regression problems are predicting the price of a house and
predicting the number of bugs in a source code.
Mountain car problem is based on an underpowered car that must drive up a steep
hill. The car cannot simply accelerate up the steep slope since gravity is stronger than
the car’s engine. The solution requires a reinforcement-learning agent to leverage
potential energy by learning on two continuous variables: position and velocity.
I also classified the algorithms used in the experiments and case studies into two
groups: traditional ML and DL algorithms.
traditional ML algorithms entail a manual feature selection process, which may
require domain expertise, statistical analysis of input data, and experiments for
building models with different feature .For instance, to detect an object in an image,
a data scientist would first need to extract features such as edges, blobs, and
textured regions from the image .Thereafter, these features can be fed to an ML
algorithm to detect objects. On the other hand, DL algorithms are capable of learning
more correct features compared to human-designed ones .Hence, for scenarios
where there is a big gap between the inputs (such as images) and the outputs (such
as objects), DL models are able to perform much better than traditional ML
models .However, large labeled datasets are required to train DL models.
the researchers mostly used traditional ML algorithms. The rationale
behind this could be unavailability of sufficient labeled datasets.
Another reason could be that traditional ML algorithms are suggested to
be used for t.
he problems where features are available
3. Which challenges and solutions for engineering ML systems were
raised by SE researchers?
The identified SE challenges are classified based on the main SE
knowledge areas.
3.1 Requirements engineering
Requirements engineering involves eliciting, analyzing, specifying, and
validating requirements.
RE process has numerous potential obstacles, such as incomplete,
hidden, inconsistent, underspecified requirements, communication
flaws.
Managing expectations of customers: A potential gap between
customers’ expectations and the delivered system has been reported as
a potential problem in software projects (Wiegers, 1996). Frequent
customer engagement is an effective way of reducing this ‘‘expectation
gap’’
Eliciting and analyzing requirements:
Requirements of ML systems are heavily dependent on available data;
different data sets may lead to different needs.
Specifying requirements:
Requirements to be fulfilled by ML components are generally specified
using quantitative measures (such as accuracy, precision, recall, F
measure)that are new for many stakeholders.
In parallel with the rise of ML systems, new quality metrics to ensure
completeness, consistency, etc. should be defined and contemporary
techniques for specifying types of requirements, such as performance.
Dealing with new types of quality attributes:
Stakeholders need to elicit requirements on new types of quality
attributes, such as explainability ,fairness and freshness.
explainability of an ML system measures how a human observer can
understand the reasons behind a decision. Explainability is quite
essential in building trust between an ML system and its users . Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has started a program
named ‘‘Explainable AI (XAI)’’, which aimed at developing more
explainable models.
As ML systems are increasingly being used in domains sensitive to
discrimination (such as education, employment, healthcare) due to
protected characteristics (such as gender and race), it becomes crucial
to avoid making decisions biased by protected characteristics. Various
definitions of this new type of quality attribute, fairness, have been
presented. example, a software system assessing loan applications can
be attributed to be fair with respect to age and race. If protected
characteristics are directly identifiable, excluding them from the training
data can fulfill the fairness requirement. For instance, address data,
which may be correlated with race, may be used to train a model for
credit scoring.
Freshness requirement (Zinkevich, 2017) refers to the conditions for
updating ML models. ML models’ performance may change over time
due to some reasons, such as changing patterns in input data (data
drift). Freshness requirements can be defined as a period (daily, weekly,
monthly update of ML models). Robustness requirements are vital,
especially for safety-critical systems, such as those used in autonomous
driving.
For example, an ML component should detect a pedestrian even if a
small amount of noise is added to the image or it is rotated by a limited
amount.
data quality is an important aspect to be considered during RE since it
directly affects the performance of an ML model.
Business rules include government regulations, corporate policies, and
industry standards and form the rules that a software system must
comply with .Business rules are not software requirements themselves,
 6. Discussion
Requirements engineering for ML systems:
Specifying ML components’ requirements requires a different perspective than
traditional software components.
It is difficult and mostly impossible to characterize all the behaviors of ML
components under all circumstances
Rather than specifying precise requirements, hypothesizing what outcomes can
be obtained from data should be the starting point, and requirements shall be
refined via experimentation.
Designing ML systems:
Monitoring for potential performance degradation on production and high-
volume data processing are two important design considerations for ML systems.
New architectural styles and patterns for ML systems are required for robust
systems to address these concerns.
SE tooling for developing ML systems:
ML systems’ development involves a diverse set of frameworks, tools, libraries,
and programming languages (Rahman et al., 2019). The popularity of ML has
brought many tools, mostly open-source
Some tools emerged from academia, such as DARVIZ,, NeuralVis, ModelKB, to
solve specific problems in developing ML systems.
Testing ML systems:
Despite many studies, we do not have mature testing techniques and tools to
develop ML systems in industrial settings. Designing and evaluating test cases,
preparing test data, executing tests, and assessing test results contain many
research problems.
SE researchers focused mostly on testing ML systems. Despite many studies, we
do not have mature testing techniques and tools to develop ML systems in
industrial settings. Designing and evaluating test cases, preparing test data,
executing tests, and assessing test results contain many research problems.
Debugging tool support:
Debugging and profiling tool support is an essential deficiency for engineering
ML systems.Although there are some approaches and prototype tools, such as
DeepFault(Eniser et al., 2019), LAMP (Ma et al., 2017), MODE (Ma et al.,
2018c), and DARVIZ (Sankaran et al., 2017), more mature debugging tools
integrated with ML system development environments are required.
Advances in machine learning lead to a transition from the conventional
view of software development, where algorithms are hard-coded by
humans, to ML systems that are materialized through learning from
data. Therefore, we need to rethink our ways of developing software
systems and consider the particularities required by these new types of
applications. This study aims to systematically identify, analyze,
summarize, and synthesize SE research’s current state for engineering
ML systems. Researchers have been showing an increasing interest in
this research area since 2018 (Fig. 9). Although there are a lot of primary
studies (Section 9.1, Primary Studies (sources reviewed in the SLR)) and
secondary studies (Section 3) on this topic, many research questions
remain unanswered (Section 6.1 and Table 8). More cooperation
between industry and academia and conducting more experiments
using real-world problems would help to extend the SE body of
knowledge for engineering ML systems. Moreover, reporting on lessons
learned from action research in the industry can provide valuable
insights for answering research questions.
Knowledge area Challenge Proposed solution(s)

Requirements Managing expectations of Inform customers about the benefits of ML • Explain

engineering customers the possibility of change in the level of success of ML
systems on production in time
Eliciting and analyzing State some requirements as hypotheses to be tested via
requirements experiments • Refine requirements by means of
experiments
Specifying requirements Use a checklist to identify business metrics • Use logical
formulas to express classification performance,
robustness, and fairness of ML classifiers • Extend Goal-
oriented Requirements Engineering • Use a
specification language for specifying fairness
requirement

Dealing with new types of Use a model and a measurement method to agree with
quality attributes customers on quality attributes • Use baselines for
specifying quality attributes when possible (such as
human performance for a safety-critical task)

Dealing with new types of

conflicts between
requirements

Dealing with changing Assess data quality during RE

 Designing for monitoring Use a specific software
design performance degradation architectural pattern to
on production deal with operational
problems such as problem
localization and rollback
at failure

Using new solution Design effective solutions

patterns for solving via experiments • Develop
problems and use a design patterns
catalog • Develop and use
a catalog of architectural
patterns

Dealing with high-volume Use a checklist to validate

data a design model against
high-volume data
Software Understanding ML Produce better documentation for ML libraries, Use automated model and
developmen algorithms, techniques, and parameter recommendation tools, Utilize resources such as Stack Overflow
libraries for knowledge acquisition via automatic documentation generation
t and tools

Dealing with models Use a model-driven development based and platform agnostic framework to
generate DL library specificcode (such as DARVIZ), Use a visual tool to develop
DL models (such as DeepVisual), Use a verification tool (such as NEURODIFF)
to develop robust and resource-efficient ML systems involving compressed ML
models, use a visual tool for supporting engineers in the understanding
structure of neural network models (such as NeuralVis), Use a tool (such as
FeatureNET) to generate and evaluate DL models

Dealing with dependencies,

Reusing models

Dealing with the • Use Docker images with all desired software pre-installed to prevent
development environment, discrepancies among development, quality assurance, and production
tools, and infrastructure environments, • Develop and use extensions on current IDEs for ML system
development, such as Azure ML for Visual Studio Code, Use a tool (such as
DARVIZ) for model abstraction to provide interoperability across platforms,
Use unified APIs (ML API) hiding the complexity of ML libraries
Dealing with data Use data verification tools
Testing Designing test cases Use a method/tool for testing DL models such as DeepEvolution , DeepCT ,DeepConcolic.
Utilize Metamorphic Testing to test DL systems, Use a method/tool to generate fault-
revealing inputs such as DeepJanus, Use a method/tool for generating test inputs for
autonomous cars, Reduce test data volume using an approach, such as DeepReduce ,PACE

Evaluating test cases Use a coverage criterion appropriate for ML/DL models, Consider other criteria when neuron
coverage criterion is not sufficient, such as proposed in DeepGini ,DeepImportance, Measure
the quality of test data
Preparing test data Use a tool (such as DLFuzz) to generate adversarial examples without manual labeling effort,
Develop an infrastructure for automated data collection and labeling, Consider using
simulators to generate test data when appropriate
Executing tests Use a tool to execute tests (such as ModelKB), Use a differential testing framework to detect
potential inconsistent behavior of ML models on different settings

Evaluating test Use metamorphic relations to tackle with oracle problem, Use combinatorial testing to tackle
results with oracle problem, Use a program synthesis technique to tackle with oracle problem

Debugging and fixing Use an approach/tool to debug and fix DL models, such as DeepFault , LAMP , MODE,
DARVIZ. Use an approach to find and localize bugs in DL libraries, such as CRADLE ,LEMON

Automating tests • Use a systematic technique to automate test case generation, such as DeepTest
Maintenance and Dealing with Use a tool for data and ML model configuration management (such as
configuration configuration ModelKB) • Use Software Composition Analysis (SCA) tools to discover
management management of data all related components of ML frameworks • Use a single platform (like
and ML models Kubernetes) to manage all components (data pipelines, ML models, code
logic, etc.) of an ML system

Dealing with the history Use a proper software architecture suitable for troubleshooting
of experiments

Dealing with re-training Apply Canary release approach for risky ML model re-deployments,Retrain
and re-deployment ML models using input data deviating from the distribution of training
data
 State of the art
the level of knowledge and development achieved in a technique, science,
etc, esp at present adjective state-of-the-art (prenominal)

The state of the art (sometimes cutting edge or leading edge) refers
to the highest level of general development, as of a device, technique, or
scientific field achieved at a particular time. However, in some contexts
it can also refer to a level of development reached at any particular time
as a result of the

the level of development (as of a device, procedure, process, technique,

or science) reached at any particular time usually as a result of modern

1.the most recent stage in the development of a product, incorporating

the newest technology, ideas, and features:
2."the state of the art in 3D printing"