Introduction to Engineering Geology

Engineering geological system:

Rock and soil : rocks are the naturally occurring aggregates of minerals. Rocks are
usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and
sedimentary rocks.
Soils are the mixture of organic matter and minerals, liquid , gases that support the
life.

SUSHANT SAPKOTA
Geologist
Geological structure: usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur
within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults and build
mountains and joints etc.
Types of geological structures:
Primary structure: developed at the time of the formation of the rocks eg:
sedimentary structures.
Secondary structure: developed in the rocks after their formation as a result of
their subjection to external forces eg: faults.
Compound structure: formed by the combination of events eg: unconformities.
Hydrogeology : branch of geology that deals with the distribution and
movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the earth´s crust.
Weathering : breaking down of the rocks, soils and minerals due to the
action of various mechanical and chemical agents and processes.
Earthquake and seismicity: the waves that generate earthquake are
called seismic waves. These waves carry a huge amount of energy
which are capable to shake the earth´s crust. Such phenomenon of earth
´s crust movement is called seismicity. An earthquake is a sudden and
temporary vibration on the earth surface due to the sudden release of
energy stored in the rocks beneath the surface.
Geotechnical category of the project
GC Includes Design requirements Design procedure

1 Small and relatively simple Negligible risk of instability or Routine design and
structures ..with negligible risk ground movements construction methods
Ground conditions known
No excavation below water table
2 Conventional types of structure and Quantitative geotechnical data Routine field and lab
foundation with no exceptional risk or and analysis to ensure testing
difficult soil or loading conditions fundamental requirements are Routine design and
satisfied execution
3 Structures or parts of structures not Use alternative provisions and
covered above rules to those in eurocodes 7
Evaluation of EGS
Engineering geological studies are done systematically and in order of the following phases:
Project definition
Feasibility
Design
Construction
Maintenance
Different parameters studied for the evaluation of engineering geological system (EGS) are:
Lithology of the intact rock
Tectonics of the area
Structural geology of the area
Mechanical and physical properties of the rock mass
Seismicity
Mechanical behaviour of the ground mass
Hydrogeological condition of the area
Important rock forming minerals and their significance
Engineering significance of rock forming
minerals
• rocks are the aggregates of minerals , some rocks are highly weather in
short time and some rocks are highly stable on weathering.
• Calcareous, siliceous rocks are weathered easily.
• Rocks having kaolinite swell on exposure.
• Rocks with carbonates are easily eroded by water.
• Rocks with quartz are highly stable to weathering.
Engineering geological map
Application of engineering geology in various civil engineering
projects;
• Construction material
• Geological work of natural agent
• Ground water condition
• Structural (fault, fold, joints, bedding)
Geological report helps in planning and constructing the projects
Preparation of geological map
• Types :
• Analytical
• Degree of weathering, seismic hazard
• Comprehensive: depict all the principal components
Characteristics of a geological map
Shows the contact between various rock units
The relative ages of strata are commonly shown by index. The oldest
rocks are placed at the bottom while the youngest at the top.
It shows the observed data(dip and strike) of a rock bed, the angle of
dip are indicated by values placed above the dip and strike symbol.
Geological structure pattern indicates
Thickness of bedrocks using geological
map
• Horizontal and vertical beds can be directly obtained
• Inclined bed can be determined: geological map and section, width of
outcrop, and bore hole data.
Topographic maps: it shows the configuration of the land surface and
drainage details of the area(roads, railways, villages, towns).
Contour lines: it is a line on the map which has the same elevation
above sea level along its entire length. Contour lines usually do not
cross each other.
Chapter 2
2. Engineering Geology in Himalayas
The Himalayan Range is a young mountain
system of world. It is a broad continuous arc along
the northern fringes of the Indian subcontinent,
from the bend of the Indus River in the northwest
to the Brahmaputra River in the east. The
Himalayan mountain chain extends in an east-west
direction between the wide plains of the Indus and
Bramhaputra in the south and the vast expanse of
the high Tibetan Plateau in the north. The limit of
the Himalayas in the east and west is marked by
the eastern and western arc of Himalayan bends.
Between these bends the Himalayan range is
approximately 2400 km long and 200 km to 300
km wide. The Himalayas cover an area of
approximately 600,000 sq. km in south Asia.
Mountains building process (orogenic)
Himalaya was formed by the collision of the Indian Plate with Tibetan
(Eurasian) Plate around 55 millions years ago. Many scientists believe
that at that time the northward moving Indian plate first touched the
southern edge of Tibetan (Eurasian) plate.
The Himalaya range is about 2400 km long and extends from the indus
river
Geological division of Nepal
Five tectonic zones
• Indo –Gangetic plain or Terai zone
• Sub Himalaya zone
• Lesser Himalaya zone
• Higher Himalaya zone
• Tibetan-Tethys zone
Major discontinuities of Nepal Himalaya are
1. Main frontal thrust
2. Main boundary thrust
3. Main central thrust
Main Frontal Thrust
These all tectonic zones are separated from each other by the thrust
faults. The southernmost fault, the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) separates
the Sub-Himalayan (Siwalik) Zone from Gangetic Plains.
The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) separates the Lesser Himalayan
Zone from Siwalik. The Main Central Thrust (MCT) separates the
Higher Himalayan Zone from the Lesser Himalayan Zone.
The South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) marks the boundary
between the Higher Himalayan Zone and the overlying fossiliferous
sequence of the Tibetan-Tethys Himalayan Zone.
Siwalik zone
Sub-Himalayan (Siwalik) Zone
The Sub-Himalaya Zone is also called as Siwalik Zone and is delimited on the south by the
Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) and on the north by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT).
It consists basically of fluvial deposits of the Neogene age (23 millions years to 1.6
millions years old). This Zone extends all along the Himalaya forming the southernmost
hill range with width of 8 to 50 km.
The Siwalik Zone has number of east-west running thrusts. Siwalik Zone is also rich with
fossils (plants, reptiles and mammals). According to three fold classification, Siwalik can
be classified as follow.
• Lower Siwalik
• Middle Siwalik
• Upper Siwalik
Lower Siwalik
The Lower Siwalik consist of irregularly laminated beds of fine grained greenish sandstone and siltstone
with mudstone. The alternating mudstone beds are thickly bedded and are variegated, red, purple, and
brown coloured. The best exposures of Lower Siwalik are found in Surainaka, Amlekhgunj, Arun Khola,
Barahchhetra and Rato Khola area of Nepal.
Middle Siwalik
The Middle Siwalik are comprised of medium to coarse grained salt-and-pepper (looks like mixture of salt
and black pepper) sandstones interbedded with mudstone. This is differentiated from the Lower Siwalik in
lacking variegated mudstone and sandstone. In upper part of the Middle Siwalik, pebbly sandstone beds are
also found. In Middle Siwalik the sandstone beds have thickness mostly ranges from 1 m to 45 m. The
exposures of Middle Siwalik are found mainly in Surkhet, Surai Khola, Hetauda, and Butwal.
Upper Siwalik
The Upper Siwalik is comprised of conglomerate and boulder beds and subordinately sand and silt beds.
The mudstone beds of the Upper Siwalik are massive and irregularly bedded and contain many invertebrate
fossils including Brachiopods and Gastropods. The upper part of this sequence contains conglomerate
beds, which have mostly boulder and cobble size rounded to sub-angular fragments of Lesser Himalayan
rocks. In Bardibas, Hetauda, Bhalubang, and Chitwan the good exposure of Upper Siwalik can be seen.
Lesser Himalayan Zone

The Lesser Himalayan Zone is bounded to the north by the Main

Central Thrust (MCT) and to the south by Main Boundary Thrust
(MBT).
The Lesser Himalaya mainly have unfossiliferous, sedimentary, and
metasedimentary rocks such as slate, phyllite, schist, quartzite,
limestone, dolomite, etc, ranging in age from Precambrian to Eocene.
There are also some granitic intrusions in this zone.
The Higher Himalayan Zone

The Higher Himalayan zone mainly consists of huge pile of strongly metamorphosed
rocks.
Geologically, the Higher Himalayan Zone includes the rocks lying north of the Main
Central Thrust (MCT) and below the highly fossiliferous Tibetan-Tethys Zone. This
zone is separated with Tibetan-Tethys Zone by normal fault system called as South
Tibetan Detachment System (STDS).
Higher Himalayan Zone consists of an approximately 10 km thick succession of
strongly metamorphosed coarse grained rocks. It extends continuously along the entire
length of the country as in whole Himalaya, and its width varies from place to place.
The kyanite - sillimanite minerals bearing gneisses, schists, and marbles of the zone
form the basement of the Tibetan-Tethys Zones. Granites are found in the upper part of
the unit.
The Tibetan-Tethys Zone

The Tibetan-Tethys Zone lies in northern part of the country. It begins from the
top of the STDS and extends to the north in Tibet.
In Nepal, the fossiliferous rocks of the Tibetan-Tethys Zone are well-
developed in Mustang, Manang and Dolpa area.
In eastern part, amount of exposure of the Tibetan Tehys Zone is almost
negligible and found only in top of the Mount Everest. Most of the other Great
Himalayan peaks of Nepal such as Manaslu, Annapurna, and Dhaulagiri have
rocks of Tibetan-Tethys Zone.
This zone is composed of sedimentary rocks, such as shale, limestone, and
sandstone, ranging in age from Cambrian to Eocene.  This zone in some area is
found as continuous deposits of Higher Himalayan Zone without normal fault.
Major tectonic discontinuity of Nepal
Himalaya
1. Main central thrust
Tectonic contact between higher and lesser Himalaya
Geological fault sloping down to north and is exposed on the surface in NW-SE
direction
2. Main boundary thrust
Tectonic contact between lesser Himalaya and siwalik
A steep north dipping fault
Seismically active thrust
3. Main frontal thrust
Tectonic contact between siwalik and terai,also north dipping
Engineering geological problems of terai, siwalik , lesser
Himalaya and higher Himalaya ,Tibetan- Tethys zone and their
mitigation
Engineering geological problems of Mitigation measures
Terai Flooding, liquefaction, sediment Leeves, dams, reservoirs
deposit, earthquake,subsidence, Revertment, groins
scouring of banks, abutments. Seismically retrofitted buildings,
shear wall system
Siwalik Landslide, slope failure,debris flow, Drainage and retaining structure
gully erosion, river cutting Check dams, reverment ,anti
erosional net
Lesser Himalaya Flash floods, debris flow,
earthquake, rock fall and rock
toppling
Higher Himalaya Glof, snow avalanches
Tibetan Tethys zone Erosion, flash flood, debris
avalanches