DIAMAGNETISM

Submitted by: Group 1

21011710-001 Rushba Zulfiqar
21011710-003 Rida Fatima
21011710-004 Sayyam Ahsan
21011710-005 Ayesha Zakaullah
To : DR MUHAMMAD SHAKIL 1
Key points
1. Introduction 1. Types of diamagnetism
2. Magnetic moment of electrons 2. References
3. Magnetic moment of atoms
4. Theory of diamagnetism
5. Classical vs quantum
6. Meissner – ochsenfeld effect
7. Landau diamagnetism
8. Anisotropy of diamagnetic
substances
9. Diamagnetic substances
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1. Introduction

The magnetic properties are due entirely to the electrons of the atoms which we
have a magnetic moment by virtue of their motion.
The nucleus also has a small magnetic moment, but it is insignificant as compared
to that of electrons, and it does not affect the gross magnetic properties.
A diamagnetic material is one that has a very low or minimal magnetic effect due
to the absence of any unpaired electrons in them.
Net magnetic moment in
diamagnetic materials is almost
zero.

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Conti..

All materials show some degree of diamagnetism, a weak, negative magnetic

succesptibity .
For a diamagnetic substance, a magnetic field induces magnetic moment
which opposes the applied magnetic field that caused it.
Diamagnetism can be regarded as originating from shielding currents
induced by an applied field in the filled electron shells of ions. These
currents are equivalent to an induced moment present on each of the atoms.
The diamagnetism is a consequence of Lenz's law stating that if the
magnetic flux enclosed by a current loop is changed by the application of a
magnetic field, a current is induced in such a direction that the corresponding
magnetic field opposes the applied field.
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Conti…

Relatively large and anisotropic

diamagnetic susceptibilities are observed
in molecules with lectrons, such as
naphthalene and graphite.
Naphthalene consists of two benzene
molecules joined along one side (Fig.
(a)).
The electrons are very mobile and
induced currents can run round the edge
of the ring, producing a large
diamagnetic susceptibility which is
largest if the magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the plane of the ring.
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Conti….
Fig(a) Naphthalene consists of two fused rings.
Fig.(b) Graphite consists of sheets of hexagonal
layer.
The carbon atoms are shown as black blobs.
The carbon atoms are in registry in alternate,
not adjacent planes (as shown by the vertical
dotted lines).
The effective ring diameter is several times
larger than an atomic diameter and so the effect
is large.
This is also true for graphite which consists of
loosely bound sheets of hexagonal layers(Fig.
(b)).

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Conti…

The diamagnetic susceptibility is much larger if the magnetic field is applied

perpendicular to the layers than if it is applied in the parallel direction.
Diamagnetism is present in all materials, but it is a weak effect which can either
be ignored or is a small correction to a larger effect.
diamagnetic effect might be expected to occur attributable to the helical paths of
the electrons in a magnetic field, but detailed analysis (van Leeuwen 1919) shows
that the effect is identically zero, the positive contribution to the diamagnetism due
to the electrons in the interior of the system being exactly counterbalanced by the
negative contribution of those electrons which hit the boundaries of the system.
In quantum theory, on the other hand, there is a non-zero diamagnetic effect, as
was first shown by Landau.

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2. Magnetic Moment of Electrons

There are two types of electron motion spin and orbital each has a magnetic
moment associated with it.
The orbital motion of electron can be considered as current in a loop of wire
having no resistance, both are equivalent to a circulation of charge.
The magnetic moment due to this motion can be given as:
(Area of the loop)(current) (1)
To evaluate we must know the size and shape of the orbit and electron velocity.
The current or charge passing a given point per unit time, is then:
(2)

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Conti…

Therefore the magnetic moment can be given as:

(3)
As Bohr’s 2nd postulate:
(4)
Combining equations 3 and 4:
(5)
For magnetic moment of 1st orbit (n=1).

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Conti…

 Spin is a universal property of electrons in all states of matter at all temperatures.

The electrons behaves as if it were in some sense spinning around its own axis
and associated with this spin are definite amounts of magnetic moment and
angular momentum.
Therefore the magnetic moment due to spin can be given as:
(6)

J/T or

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Conti…
 Thus magnetic moment due to spin
and orbital motion are exactly equal.
 Thus magnetic moment is given a
special symbol and a special name
Bohr’s magneton, and can be given
as:

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3. Magnetic Moments of Atoms

Atoms contain many electrons each spinning around its own axis and circulating
in its orbit.
The magnetic moment associated with it is vector sum of all electronic moments,
and two possibilities are:
1. The magnetic moments of all electrons are so oriented that they cancel one
another out, and the atom as a whole has no net magnetic moment. This
condition leads to diamagnetism.
2. The cancellation of electronic moments is only partial and the atom is left with
a net magnetic moment. Such an atom is often referred to as a magnetic atom.
Substances composed of this kind are para-, ferro-, antiferro-, or ferrimagnetic.

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4. Theory of Diamagnetism

A diamagnetic is a substance that exhibits, so to speak, negative magnetism.

It is composed of atoms that have no net magnetic moment.
It reacts in a particular way to an applied field.
According to classical theory, the effect of an applied field in a single electron
orbit is so reduce the effective current of the orbit and so to produce a magnetic
moment opposing the applied field.
This effect is summed over all the electrons in an atom and each atom is regarded
as acting independently of the others.
The values of diamagnetic susceptibility calculated In this way generally agree
with experimental values to better than a factor of 10, which suggest that the
model is at least qualitatively correct.
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5. Classical vs Quantum

Classically diamagnetism of a sample can be described quantitatively, for

that Martin (1967) law can be followed and considered the perturbation of
the orbital motion of electrons in the sample due to the force which each
electron experiences when moving in a magnetic field.
For a conductor element carrying a current I in the presence of a magnetic
field, thus Lorentz force is given by,
F = ……..(1)

In free space ,

If we consider the motion of a single charge e with velocity v we obtain.

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Conti..

In the quantum-mechanical treatment, one has to consider that the

electrons are described by wave functions where at every point is the
probability of finding the electron.
Alternatively, one may consider the electron as a charge cloud of
intensity at each point in space.
So, quantum mechanical result is
(ri2) is the expectation value for the squared electron position parameter ri:
The Bohr-van Leeuwen theorem states: Magnetism is a quantum
mechanical effect. Strictly classically, there cannot be either dia-, para-
or collective magnetism,
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Conti…

The new features introduced by the quantum theory are twofold.

First, the energy states of an electron in the presence of a magnetic field are not the same as
the energy states in the absence of a field, and one may say that the radii of the helical paths
of the electrons are quantized.
Secondly, the effect of the exclusion principle must be taken into account.
In order to calculate the diamagnetism it is necessary to construct the free-energy function,
if the electrons are distributed over the energy states according to classical Boltzmann
statistics, this is equivalent to calculating the partition function

Where the summation is over all energy states.

. Since Ei depends upon the magnetic field, Z may be expected to do so too, and the
diamagnetic moment in fact follows the well-known Langevin law.

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 6. Meissner-Ochsenfeld Effect:
Meissner effect, the expulsion of a magnetic that is in the process of becoming a
superconductor, that is, losing its resistance to the flow of electrical currents
when cooled below a certain temperature , called the transition temperature,
usually close to the absolute zero
 Under normal conditions the magnetic induction inside specimen is
B=μ0(H+I), here I is the magnetization produced inside the specimen.
 According to the miessner effect, when the specimen is in the superconducting
state, B is zero.
When B=0, Diamagnetism is an
essential property for
0=μ0(H+I) Superconductor.

-1=H
ꭓ= -1 (diamagnetic behaviour)
6.1 Examples

Empirically, the effect of diamagnetism

is displayed by all materials; however,
they are only called diamagnetism if no
other, stronger type of magnetism like
paramagnetism or collective magnetism
is present.
Examples for diamagnets are almost all
organic substances, metals like Bi, Zn
and Hg, nonmetals like S, I and Si, and
superconductors for T < Tc; in fact they
are perfect diamagnets: χ dia = −1 which
is called the Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect.

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 7. Types of Diamagnetism
 Larmor Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism of insulators is called Larmor diamagnetism.
In insulators, the value of susceptibilty is very small.
• Landau diamagnetism

There is also a diamagnetic contribution to the susceptibility due to (nearly) free

electrons in metals;
free electrons in an electron gas lead to charge currents in a magnetic field
which generate magnetic moments. This would still be true if the electrons had
no spin (no spin magnetic moment).
This diamagnetic response, due to the Bohr-van Leeuwen theorem, has to be a
quantum-mechanical phenomenon.
The idea is that , as the magnetic field is applied the electron distribution breaks
up into the series of landau levels, the total energy of the system may change.
 This change of energy with field is equivalent to the magnetization of the
system, this phenomena is known as the landau diamagnetism.

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Conti..
In the absence of applied field
electrons can fill up the space to a
maximum value of .
The filled states are shown shaded at
T=0 ,The highest occupied block is
and the occupied landau levels at T=0
are shown as heavy lines .

Two-dimentional electron gas: Three-dimentional electron gas:

 Gas is in uniform magnetic
 Gas is in uniform magnetic
field
field  Based on free-electron
 Based on single-electron
Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian

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8. ANISOTROPY OF DIAMAFNETIC CRYSTALS

Diamagnetism of molecular and ionic compounds is inherently a property of

the electron distribution in individual molecules or 'ions and is, as Pascal
pointed out some thty years ago, an additive property of organic compounds.
The molecular susceptibility ꭓM of a compound having the formula Aα Bβ Cϒ . . .
is given by the equation
ꭓM = Σα .ꭓA + λ
where α, β..., are the number of atoms of susceptibilities ꭓA ꭓB , ... and λ is a
constitutive correction factor, dependent on the nature of the chemical
linkages. When it is remembered that ꭓM is the mean of the three principal
susceptibilities in the case of solid compounds, it is clear that the mutual
influences of neighbouring molecules in the solid state must be negligible.
Conti...

The principal gram-molecular crystal susceptibilities,ꭓ1, ꭓ2, ꭓ3, are

related to the princzpal molecule susceptibilities, K1 , K2 , K3 , by means
of the three equations:
|ꭓ1|cos2 α1 + |K 2| cos2 β1 + |K 3| cos2 ϒ1
|ꭓ2|cos2 α2 + |K 2| cos2 β2 + |K 3| cos2 ϒ2
|ꭓ3|cos2 α3 + |K 2| cos2 β3 + |K 3| cos2 ϒ3
where cos α, cos β, cos ϒ are the direction cosines of K1, K2, K3 with
respect to ꭓ1, etc. The magnitude and direction of ꭓ1 ,ꭓ2 ,ꭓ3 can be
determined experimentally.
9. Diamagnetic Substances

The monoatomic rare gases He, Ne, A, etc., which have closed-shell
electronic structures, are all diamagnetic.
Most polyatomic gases, such as , , etc., are also diamagnetic because the
process of molecule formation usually leads to filled electrons shells and no
net magnetic moment per molecule.
 Ionic solids like NaCl are also diamagnetic.
 Covalent bonding by the sharing of electrons also leads to closed shells
and elements like C(diamond), Si, and Ge are diamagnetic.
But not all gases are diamagnetic, nor all ionic or covalent solids.
Generalizations in this area are dangerous.

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11. References
 Introduction to Magnetic Materials by B.D. Cullity and C. D. Graham.
Buschow, K .H. 1. Physics of magnetism and magnetic materials/K.H.J. Buschow
& F.R. de Boer.
Magnetism in condensed matter by Stephen Blundell
Martin, D. H. (1967) Magnetism ill solids, London: Iliffe Books Ltd
Sondheimer ,E.H.& Wilson, A.H. (1951). THE diamagnetism of free electrons
DIAMAGNETIC AND PARAMAGNETIC ANISO. TROPY OF CRYSTALS BY
KATHLEEN LONSDALE, D.Sc

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