MACRONUTRIENTS

CARBOHYDRATE (CHO)
An organic compound (saccharides- starches and sugars)
Composed of Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen arranged as monosaccharide or multiples of
monosaccharides.
PROVIDE AS THE MAJOR SOURCE OF ENERGY- 80% upto 100% of total kcal
STARCH- storage form of carbohydrate in plants
GLYCOGEN- storage form of carbohydrate in animals.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE
• Monosaccharide
• Disaccharide
• Polysaccharide

A. MONOSACCHARIDE (Simple Sugar): Simplest form of carbohydrates. REQUIRES NO DIGESTION thereby absorbed
directly into the bloodstream from small intestine.

1) Glucose (Dextrose)
(Sources: Fruits, corn syrup, honey, sweet corn, hydrolysis of starch and of sugar cane)
• “blood sugar”. Most important sugar. The body’s major fuel to provide energy. The sugar carried by the blood, sugar
used by the tissue.
• Moderately sweet.
• Created as well by the body from starch digestion
• Liver stores 1/3 of body’s total glycogen that is half day’s worth or use as needed. Liver will breakdown excess
glucose into smaller molecules to form fat (glycogen) that can be stored in adipose tissue and mostly use for muscle
cells and can be stored limitless in quantity.
• Provides energy for CELL, BRAIN, NERVE CELLS, RBCs
GLUCONEOGENESIS- process of converting protein into glucose
Cont…
• CHO>FATS (not all are converted into energy use. Fat fragments turned into KETONE)> muscle uses ketone for
energy but when exceeds can cause KETOSIS, causing acid-base imbalance in the body.
2) Fructose (Levulose): sweetest of simple sugars.
(Sources: honey, most fruits and some vegetables)
• CONVERTED INTO GLUCOSE in the body.

3) Galactose
• Not found in free foods.
• Produced from lactose (milk sugar) by digestion
• CONVERTED INTO GLUCOSE.
• GALACTOSEMIA- inability to metabolized galactose (common in infants)
B. DISACCHARIDE (Double-Sugar)
• composed of 2 monosaccharide.
• Must be convert into simple sugars by hydrolysis (chemical breakdown) before absorption

1) Sucrose
(Sources: table sugar, powdered, brown, cane sugar, beet sugar)
• Glucose + fructose
• CONVERTED into glucose and galactose
2)Lactose (Milk sugar)
(sources: milk and milk products except cheese)
• glucose + galactose
• Less soluble and less sweet
• Stays longer in intestine and encourages growth of certain good bacteria
• 4.8%- lactose found in Cow’s milk and 7% in human milk

3)Maltose (Malt sugar)

(Sources: malt beverages, beer)
• Produced by hydrolysis of starch and converted into glucose
• Glucose + glucose
B. POLYSACCHARIDE
• composed of MANY molecules of simple sugars.
• “COMPLEX SUGARS”

1) Starch
(Sources: potatoes, root crops, cereal grains, legumes)
• Most significant among polysaccharide
• CONVERTED INTO GLUCOSE
• Requires longer time for digestion- providing energy for longer period of time

2) Dextrin
• Byproduct from breakdown of starch
• Contains thickening property
3) Cellulose
(sources:unrefined grains, vegetables,fruits)
• Framework of plants.
• Non digestible by human
• No specific enzyme is present to breakdown
• Aids in digestive food mass and stimulate peristalsis (involuntary contruction)
• Low in blood sugar level

SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE
• Decrease diarrhea • Increase fecal bulk and reduce transit time
• Decrease GI transit • Decrease risk of constipation
• Decrease glycemic and cholesterol control • Slow starch hydrolysis
• Prebiotic effect • Delays glucose absorption
SOURCES: Fruits,legumes, barley, oats
4) Pectin
(sources: mostly fruits and used as base for jellies)
• Non digestible
• Gel quality
• Absorbs toxins and bacteria
• Binds cholesterol> decreases cholesterol level

5) Glycogens (Animal starch)

• Formed from glucose and stored in the liver and muscle tissues
• GLUCAGON> GLYCOGEN>ENERGY
DIGESTION
1) MOUTH
a. Amylase (secreted by the parotid glands) converts carbs into starch.
b. Action: food conveyed into stomach into starch form

Monossacharide
absorbed from the intestine and directly into the blood stream
Fructose and galactose- carries to the liver> glucose> into the cell

Disaccharide
must be converted into simple sugar before absorption.
Enzymes: sucrase, maltase, lactase

Polysaccharide
Breakdown of cellulose wall>starch> dextrin>maltose>glucose
DIGESTION
2) STOMACH

a. Enzyme- none for carbs

b. Action- none

3) SMALL INTESTINE

c. Enzyme- enzymes from pancreas converts starch into dextrin and maltose
d. Intestinal juice- contains 3 disaccharide enzymes to convert into simple sugars
Supplies significant quantity of vitamins and
minerals and b vitamins

Lactose stays longer in the intestine thus

encourages growth of beneficial bacteria and
act as laxative

Glucose has benefits in nerve tissues and food

for the brain
HEALTH EFFECTS
 LIPIDS
FATS – organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
TRIGLYCERIDE/FATS & OILS are fatty acids of glycerol.
They are insoluble in water
Provides more concentrated source of energy than CHO
Note: some fat deposits are not used instead they hold body organs and nerves to
protect against shock and injury.

FAT- solid lipid

OIL- liquid form lipid
CLASSIFICATION OF FATS
TYPES OF LIPIDS
A. TRIGLYCERIDES (fats and oils) “Simple lipids”
1. Glycerol- composed of 3 carbon chain which serves as the backbone for a
triglyceride
2. Fatty Acids- an organic compound composed of a carbon chain with hydrogen
attached and an acid group (COOH) at the end.
1. Saturated- carrying maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms (stearic
acid)
2. Monounsaturated- lacks 2 hydrogen atoms and has 1 double bond between
carbons (oleic acid)
3. Polyunsaturated- lacks 4 or more hydrogen atoms and has 2 or more double
bonds between carbons (linoleic acid, omega-3, omega-6)
CLASSIFICATION OF FATS
TYPES OF LIPIDS
B. COMPOUND LIPIDS: Various combination of fats with other components.
3 important compound lipids
1) Phospholipids
2) Glycolipids
3) Lipoproteins

1) Phospholipids- similar to triglyceride but have phosphate group and choline in place of one of the FA.
a) Lecithins: most widely distributed among phospholipids. Traces are found in yolk and liver, some in raw vegetable oils
such as corn oil. Can be added to food products like cheese and margarines to aid emulsification.
b) Cephalins: needed to form thromboplastin for blood clotting process
c) Sphingomyelins: found in the brain and other nerve tissue as component of myelin sheath
CLASSIFICATION OF FATS
Glycolipids- compounds of fatty acids combined with carbohydrates and nitrogenous bases.
a) Cerebrosides- components of nerve tissue and certain cell membrane where they play vital role in fat transport.
Galactose as its carbohydrate component
b) Gangliosides- made up of glucose, galactose and complex compound containing amino sugars

Lipoprotein- lipids combined with proteins. Formed primarily in the liver and cell. They carry cholesterol through your bloodstream to
your cells.
two main groups of lipoproteins:
HDL (high-density lipoprotein) or "good" cholesterol
LDL (low-density lipoprotein) or "bad" cholesterol.
C. DERIVED LIPIDS: Simple derivatives from fat digestion or other more complex products. FAT SUBSTANCE PRODUCED FROM
FATS DIGESTIVE BREAKDOWN
1)FattyAcids: refined fuel forms of fat that the cell burns for energy. BASIC structure units of fat.
 fats

SOURCES OF FA
a) Saturated FA: No hydrogen can be added (palmetic and stearic acids)
abundant in animal fats
b) Monounsaturated FA: with 2 carbon atoms joined by double bond, (e.g.
Oleic acid, Olive oil, peanut oil)
c) Polyunsaturated FA: 2 or more double bonds are present. (e.g Linoleic
acid, abundant in vegetable oils)

Oleic Acid: (omega-9)

Linoleic Acid (Omega-6) “pro-inflammatory”
Linolenic Acid (Omega-3) “anti-inflammatory”
 2) Glycerol: A water-soluble component of triglyceride. Inconvertible to carbohydrate. After hydrolysis
in digestion it becomes available as glucose in the diet
3) Steroids: contains sterols. The main member for this group is cholesterol.
liver- site where cholesterol synthesized

CHOLESTEROL- an essential lipid needed for the formation of adrenocortical hormones which is responsible for the
manifestation development of secondary male and female sexual characteristics.

2 SOURCES
1. Endogenous (synthesized by the liver)
2. Exogenous(provided by the diet: egg yolk, fish roe, oysters and internal organs)
Mouth> Stomach (slight digestion via gastric lipase into fatty acids and glycerols> small intestine (gallbladder sends
bile salts, then pancreatic lipase hydrolizes triglycerides into diglycerides then into monyglycerides then fatty acids
then into glycerols
Important source of calorie- reservoir
Protein sparing
Body temperature
Protects organ
Fat soluble vitamins
Provides satiety
Adds flavor to the food
HEALTH EFFECTS
 PROTEIN (CHON)
PROTEIN came from a Greek word “proteos” meaning “primary” or “taking first place”. Contains AMINO ACIDS that are important in synthesizing
its own protein and nitrogen- containing molecules.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
A. Simple proteins: yield only amino acids upon hydrolysis
1. Albumin: soluble in water and coagulated by heat
2. Globulins: insoluble in water, soluble in dilute salt solutions and coagulated in heat
3. Glutelins: insoluble in neutral solvents but soluble in weak acids and alkalis, coagulated in heat
4. Albuminoids: insoluble in all neutral solvents and in dilute acids and alkalis
5. Prolamins: soluble in 70%-80% alcohol but insoluble in absolute alcohol, water and salt solution
6. Histones and protamines: basic polypetides, soluble in water but not coagulated by heat. Seen in nuclei od cells

B. Compound proteins: “conjugated proteins” or “proteids” combination of simple protein and some other non protein
sunstances called a prosthetic group attached to a molecule.
1. Nucleoproteins: simple protein + nuclei acid. DEOXTRIBONUCLEIC NUCLEOPROTEINS are necessary for the synthesis of protein in the cytoplasm
2. Mucoprotein and glycoproteins: protein + large qty of complex polysaccharides
3. lipoprotein: compound of proteins + triglyceride + lipid (phospolipds or cholesterol)
4. Phospoproteins: phosphoric acid joined in ester linkage to protein found in casein
5. Chromoprotein: protein + non protein pigments found in flavoproteins, hemoglobin and cytochromes
6. metalloprotein: metals (Cu, Mg, Zn, Fe)
 C. Derived proteins: formed in the various stages of hydrolysis of protein molecules.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS

A. ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS- AA that cannot be synthesized in the body and must be supplied by ready-made or performed in
the diet
P- henylalanine T-hreonine H-istidine
V-aline I-soleucine A-rginine
T-ryptophan M-ethionine L-ysine

B. SEMI-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS- when present in the diet, reduce the need for an essential AA.
(tryrosine, cysteine,serine)
C. NONESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS- Can be synthesized by the body if materials are adequate
(glutamic acid, hydroxyglitamic acid, aspartic acid, alanine, proline, norleucine, etc)
Mouth (CHURNING)> Stomach (HCl TRIGGERS Pepsinogen-pepsin which converts CHON into proteoses and peptones>small
intestine a)pancreas: enterokinase activates trypsinogen then produces trypsin hydrolyzes into proteoses and peptones into
polypeptides and peptides; active trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen produces chymotrypsin; carboxypeptides converts
polypeptides into simple peptide, dipeptide, and AA.
b)instestine: aminopeptidase- converts polypetides into peptides and AA; Dipeptidase converts dipeptides into AA
 MEASURES OF PROTEIN QUALITY
Complete or High Biological Value (HBV) Protein- contains all essential amino acids that are sufficient for growth and life maintenance
Partially Complete Protein- Can maintain life but do not support growth. (e.g. legumes, gliadin in wheats)
Incomplete Protein- Cannot Support Life growth (e.g. zein in corn, gelatin and plant protein)

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
1. Growth and maintenance
2. Protein Facilitates chemical reactions
3. Regulation of body processes
4. Inactivation of antigens
5. Fluid and electrolyte balance
6. Maintenance of acid-base balance
7. Transport of certain substances in the blood
8. Source of energy
 PROTEIN REQUIREMENTH
Healthy Adults: 0.8g /kg body wt.
Sick Adults: 1.2-2.0g/kg body wt.
Children: varies
Pregnant: additional 30g
Lactation: additional 20g
Renal and liver: 0.6-0.8g /kg body wt (pre-dialysis) , 1.2-1.7g /kg body wt (dialysis)
HEALTH EFFECTS
HEALTH EFFECTS
PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)- condition resulting in insufficiency of protein or energy or both in the diet
MICRONUTRIENTS
Deficiency may lead to
fatigue, and long term
defiency may cause
deterioration in health.

Vit D is the only vitamin that

human body can produce.

Vitamins do not have caloric

value but necessary in
convertion of macronut into
energy.
KEY TERMS
Precursor or Provitamins: compounds that can be changed into active vitamins. (e.g carotenes = Vit A ;
ergosterol= Vitamin D)
Preformed Vitamins: naturally occurring vitamins that are in inactive form and ready for biological use.
Avitaminosis: condition from lack of vitamins (e.g Avitaminosis A= night blindness, Avitaminosis B= Beri beri)
Hypervitaminosis: “vitamin toxicity”
Vitamin Malnutrition: too much or too little vitamin consumption
Vitamin-like compounds: some substances that do have physiological roles like vitamins that are present in
large amount and partially synthesized in the body. (e.g. inositol, lipoic acid, arginine,glutamine)
Antivitamins or Vitamin Antagonist- substance interfering the use of vitamin (e.g. dicumerol against vit K)
fat soluble- can be dissolved in fat
Water soluble- can be dissolved in water
Catalyst- substances that causes another substance to react (ex b-complex)
Coenzymes- active parts of an enzyme (ex b-complex)
Bitot spot
COMMON SYMPTOMS

• Difficulty walking.
• Loss of feeling (sensation) in hands and feet.
• Loss of muscle function or paralysis of the lower legs.
• Mental confusion/speech difficulties.
• Pain.
• Strange eye movements (nystagmus)
• Tingling.
• Vomiting.