Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that

affects all landforms. In agriculture, soil erosion refers
to the wearing away of a field's topsoil by the natural
physical forces of water and wind or through forces
associated with farming activities such as tillage.
Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or tillage,
involves three distinct actions – soil detachment,
movement and deposition. Topsoil, which is high in
organic matter, fertility and soil life, is relocated
elsewhere "on-site" where it builds up over time or is
carried "off-site" where it fills in drainage channels.
Soil erosion reduces cropland productivity and
contributes to the pollution of adjacent watercourses,
wetlands and lakes.
Soil erosion can be a slow process that continues
relatively unnoticed or can occur at an alarming rate,
causing serious loss of topsoil. Soil compaction, low
organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor internal
drainage, salinisation and soil acidity problems are
other serious soil degradation conditions that can
accelerate the soil erosion process.
Factors affecting rate and magnitude of soil erosion by water
Rainfall and Runoff
The greater the intensity and duration of a rainstorm, the higher the
erosion potential. The impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break
down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter
aggregate materials such as very fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter
are easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water; greater
raindrop energy or runoff amounts are required to move larger sand and
gravel particles.
Soil movement by rainfall (raindrop splash) is usually greatest and most
noticeable during short-duration, high-intensity thunderstorms.
Although the erosion caused by long-lasting and less-intense storms is
not usually as spectacular or noticeable as that produced during
thunderstorms, the amount of soil loss can be significant, especially when
compounded over time.
Surface water runoff occurs whenever there is excess
water on a slope that cannot be absorbed into the soil
or is trapped on the surface. Reduced infiltration due
to soil compaction, crusting or freezing increases the
runoff. Runoff from agricultural land is greatest during
spring months when the soils are typically saturated,
snow is melting and vegetative cover is minimal.
Soil Erodibility
Soil erodibility provides an estimate of the ability of soils
to resist erosion, based on the physical characteristics of
each soil. Texture is the principal characteristic affecting
erodibility, but structure, organic matter and
permeability also contribute. Generally, soils with faster
infiltration rates, higher levels of organic matter and
improved soil structure have a greater resistance to
erosion. Sand, sandy loam and loam-textured soils tend
to be less erodible than silt, very fine sand and certain
clay-textured soils.
Past erosion also has an effect on a soil's erodibility.
Many exposed subsurface soils on eroded sites tend to
be more erodible than the original soils were because
of their poorer structure and lower organic matter. The
lower nutrient levels often associated with subsoils
contribute to lower crop yields and generally poorer
crop cover, which in turn provides less crop protection
for the soil
Slope Gradient and Length
The steeper and longer the slope of a field, the higher
the risk for erosion. Soil erosion by water increases as
the slope length increases due to the greater
accumulation of runoff. Consolidation of small fields
into larger ones often results in longer slope lengths
with increased erosion potential, due to increased
velocity of water, which permits a greater degree of
scouring (carrying capacity for sediment).
Cropping and Vegetation
The potential for soil erosion increases if the soil has no or very little
vegetative cover of plants and/or crop residues. Plant and residue
cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends to
slow down the movement of runoff water and allows excess surface
water to infiltrate.
The erosion-reducing effectiveness of plant and/or crop residues
depends on the type, extent and quantity of cover. Vegetation and
residue combinations that completely cover the soil and intercept all
falling raindrops at and close to the surface are the most efficient in
controlling soil erosion (e.g., forests, permanent grasses). Partially
incorporated residues and residual roots are also important as these
provide channels that allow surface water to move into the soil.
Tillage Practices
The potential for soil erosion by water is affected by
tillage operations, depending on the depth, direction
and timing of plowing, the type of tillage equipment
and the number of passes. Generally, the less the
disturbance of vegetation or residue cover at or near
the surface, the more effective the tillage practice in
reducing water erosion. Minimum till or no-till
practices are effective in reducing soil erosion by water.
Tillage and other practices performed up and down
field slopes creates pathways for surface water runoff
and can accelerate the soil erosion process. Cross-
slope cultivation and contour farming techniques
discourage the concentration of surface water runoff
and limit soil movement.
Causes of Soil Erosion
DEFORESTATION
Without plant cover, erosion can occur and sweep the
land into rivers. The agricultural plants that often
replace the trees cannot hold onto the soil and many
of these plants, such as coffee, cotton, palm oil,
soybean and wheat, can actually worsen soil erosion.
And as land loses its fertile soil, agricultural producers
move on, clear more forest and continue the cycle of
soil loss
OVERGRAZING
The conversion of natural ecosystems to pasture land
doesn’t damage the land initially as much as crop
production, but this change in usage can lead to high
rates of erosion and loss of topsoil and nutrients.
Overgrazing can reduce ground cover, enabling
erosion and compaction of the land by wind and rain..
This reduces the ability for plants to grow and water to
penetrate, which harms soil microbes and results in
serious erosion of the land.
USE OF AGROCHEMICALS
Pesticides and other chemicals used on crop plants have
helped farmers to increase yields. Scientists have
found that overuse of some of these chemicals changes
soil composition and disrupts the balance of
microorganisms in the soil. This stimulates the growth
of harmful bacteria at the expense of beneficial kinds.
Logging and mining
Logging, similar to deforestation, causes soil erosion as it
removes the trees protecting the soil from the elements,
anchoring it to the ground. Tree roots act to hold the soil
together, and their leaves and branches form canopies that
prevent the impact of the harsh elements. In addition, living
trees produce leaf litter which is also vital in protecting the
topsoil from erosion. Already the world has lost a significant
portion of its forests to logging activities, resulting in not only
topsoil erosion, but pollution of rivers, lakes, and estuaries, as
well as polluting coral reef environments by introducing too
much soil into these areas.
Mining is another major industry that directly adds to
soil erosion. By its nature, mining requires the
removal of earth to retrieve resources below the
surface. Mining can destroy landscapes, not only
removing earth but also removing the trees that are
essential to maintaining the soil.
Construction
Constructing buildings and roads churns up the ground
and exposes soil to erosion. In some locations, native
landscapes, such as forest and grassland, are cleared,
exposing the surface to erosion (in some locations the
land that will be built on is farmland). Near
construction sites, dirt, picked up by the wind, is often
in the air.
Recreational Activities
Recreational activities may accelerate soil erosion. Off-
road vehicles disturb the landscape and the area
eventually develops bare spots where no plants can
grow. In some delicate habitats, even hikers’ boots can
disturb the ground, so it’s important to stay on the trail
Soil erosion is as natural as any other type of erosion,
but human activities have greatly accelerated soil
erosion. In some locations soil erosion may occur
about 10 times faster than its natural rate.
What Solutions Exist to Prevent Soil
Erosion?
1. Use Soil-friendly Agricultural Practices
Terrace farming needs to be implemented to make hillside
agriculture manageable. Terraces prevent erosion and allow more
water to flow to crops. In addition, hillside farm fields need full
crop cover to help keep the soil in place. This can be accomplished
by intercropping, which means growing two crops together in the
same field, such as planting rows of maize or soybean between
rows of oil palm trees. For smallholders, agroforestry systems
 where a diverse set of crops, including trees, are grown together
can be effective. Access to manure improves the organic matter of
the soil, which inhibits erosion. Finally, alternating deep-rooted
and shallow-rooted crops improves soil structure and reduces
erosion at the same time.
2. Offer Incentives for Land Management
Although the science of sustainable land management has been
gaining support, the socio-economic context often makes
implementation difficult. Sustainable land practices need to be
financially viable for farmers. Anti-erosion measures have a median
cost of $500 per hectare, a considerable investment for a farmer.
Governments and banks must help farmers get access to credit and
support in implementing erosion prevention. This is not only a
good deal for the farmer, but for the whole community. The cost of
erosion prevention is far lower than the price of land restoration
and rehabilitation, which one source estimated to be around 
$1,500–$2,000 per hectare. Another source found it could reach 
$15,221 per hectare.
3. Prevention AND Rehabilitation
The key to managing and reducing soil erosion is to 
rehabilitate already-damaged land, stop further
degradation and put erosion-preventative measures at
the core of land management policy. In this way, we
can help prevent hunger and mitigate the climate
crisis.
Some Methods to Prevent Soil Erosion
1. COVER methods
These methods all protect the soil from the damaging effects of rain-
drop impact. Most will also improve soil fertility.
Mulching
Bare soil between growing plants is covered with a layer of organic
matter such as straw, grasses, leaves and rice husks - anything readily
available. Mulching also keeps the soil moist, reduces weeding,
keeps the soil cool and adds organic matter.
Cover crops and green manures
Cover crops are a kind of living mulch. They are plants - usually
legumes - which are grown to cover the soil, also reducing weeds.
Sometimes they are grown under fruit trees or taller, slow maturing
crops. Sometimes they also produce food or fodder. Cowpeas, for
example may be used both as a cover crop and a food crop.
Green manures - also usually legumes - are planted specially to improve
soil fertility by returning fresh leafy material to the soil. They may be
plants that are grown for 1-2 months between harvesting one crop and
planting the next. The leaves may be cut and left on the surface of the soil
as a mulch or the whole plant dug into the soil. Green manures may also
be trees or hedges which may grow for many years in a cropping field from
which green leaves are regularly cut for use as mulch.
Mixed cropping and inter-cropping
By growing a variety of crops - perhaps mixed together, in alternate rows,
or sown at different times - the soil is better protected from rain splash.
Early planting
The period at the beginning of the rainy season when the soil is prepared
for planting, is when the damage from rain splash is often worst. Sowing
early will make the period when the soil is bare, as short as possible.
Crop residues
After harvest, unless the next crop is to be immediately replanted, it is a good
idea to leave the stalks, stems and leaves of the crop just harvested, lying on
the soil. They will give some cover protection until the next crop develops.
Agroforestry
Planting trees among agricultural crops helps to protect the soil from erosion,
particularly after crops are harvested. The trees will give some protection from
rain splash. Fruit, trees, legume trees for fodder or firewood and alley
cropping all help reduce soil erosion.
Minimum cultivation
Each time the soil is dug or ploughed, it is exposed to erosion. In some soils it
may be possible to sow crops without ploughing or digging, ideally among the
crop residue from the previous crop. This is most likely to be possible in a
loose soil with plenty of organic matter.
2. BARRIER methods
Barrier methods all slow the flow of water down a slope. This
greatly reduces the amount of soil which run-off water can
carry away and conserves water. To be effective any barrier
must follow the contour lines.
Man-made terraces
In some countries terracing has been successfully practised
for centuries - the Philippines, Peru and Nepal, for example.
Well-built terraces are one of the most effective methods of
controlling soil erosion, especially on steep slopes. However,
terraces require skill and very hard work to build. Each
terrace is levelled - first by levelling the sub-soil, then the top
soil - and firm side supports are built, often of rock.
Contour ploughing
Whenever possible all land should be ploughed along the contour line -
never up and down, since this simply encourages erosion. In some
cultures this may be very difficult due to the pattern of land inheritance.
For example the Luo people in Western Kenya inherit land in long strips
running down to the river valleys, making contour ploughing extremely
difficult. Soil conservation programmes may need to consider land
redistribution schemes, or neighbouring farmers will have to work
together.
Contour barriers
Almost any available material can be used to build barriers along the
contours. Here are some examples: old crop stalks and leaves, stones,
grass strips, ridges and ditches strengthened by planting with grass or
trees.
Natural terraces
It includes the use of grass strips or planting grass along the
contour lines. Fibrous grasses with a dense root system can be
used such as Napier grass, Guatemala grass and Guinea grass. The
strips of land in between were cultivated. As the soil is cultivated,
nature moves the soil to form a natural terrace. The rainwater
passes through the grass strip, depositing any soil carried behind
the grass. Once well established, the grass barrier can be planted
with banana, pineapple, coffee, fruit or firewood trees.’
Vetiver grass has been very effective in grass strips. It does not
spread onto cultivated soil, it produces sterile seeds, has few pest
problems and can survive in a wide range of climates.
References:
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/1
2-053.htm
https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-an
d-degradation
https://www.azolifesciences.com/article/What-Cause
s-Soil-Erosion.aspx
https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/01/causes-effects-how
-to-prevent-soil-erosion
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/readi
ng-causes-of-soil-erosion/
https://learn.tearfund.org/en/resources/publications/
footsteps/footsteps_11-20/footsteps_15/how_to_contro