UNIT 3

Sampling Techniques
• Sampling may be defined as the selection of
some part of an aggregate or totality on the
basis of which a judgement or inference about
the aggregate or totality is made.
• In other words, it is the process of obtaining
information about an entire population by
examining only a part of it.
 Need for Sampling
• Sampling can save time and money. A sample
study is usually less expensive than a census
study.
• Sampling may enable more accurate
measurements
• Sampling remains the only way when
population contains infinitely many members.
• Sampling usually enables to estimate the
sampling errors
 SOME FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
• Universe/Population: the term ‘Universe’refers
to the total of the items or units in any field of
inquiry, whereas the term ‘population’ refers to
the total of items about which information is
desired.
• The population or universe can be finite or
infinite. The population is said to be finite if it
consists of a fixed number of elements so that it
is possible to enumerate it in its totality.
• Sampling frame:The elementary units or the
group or cluster of such units may form the
basis of sampling process in which case they are
called as sampling units. A list containing all
such sampling units is known as sampling frame.
• Sampling design:A sample design is a definite
plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling
frame. Sampling design is determined before
any data are collected.
• Statisitc(s) and parameter(s):A statistic is a
characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is a
characteristic of a population. Thus, when we work out
certain measures such as mean, median,mode or the
like ones from samples, then they are called statistic(s)
for they describe the characteristics of a sample.
• Sampling error: Sample surveys do imply the study of a
small portion of the population and as such there
would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy in
the information collected. This inaccuracy may be
termed as sampling error or error variance.
• Diagram
• Sampling error = Frame error + Chance error +
Response error.
• Precision: Precision is the range within which the
population average (or other parameter) will lie in
accordance with the reliability specified in the
confidence level as a percentage of the estimate ±
or as a numerical quantity.
• Confidence level and significance level: The
confidence level or reliability is the expected
percentage of times that the actual value will fall
within the stated precision limits.
• Sampling distribution:We are often concerned
with sampling distribution in sampling analysis.
• If we take certain number of samples and for
each sample compute various statistical
measures such as mean, standard deviation,
etc,.
 Probability and Non Probability Sampling
Methods
• Non-Probability Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling is that sampling procedure
which does afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the population has being
included in the sample.
It is also known by different names such as deliberate
sampling, purposive sampling and Judgement Sampling.
In this type of sampling, items for the sample are
selected deliberately by the researcher. Quota Sampling
is also an example of non-probability sampling
• Deliberate sampling
Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or
non-probability sampling. This sampling method
involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular
units of the universe for constituting a sample which
represents the universe.
• When population elements are selected for inclusion in
the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called
convenience sampling.
• Judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is
used for selecting items which he considers as
representative of the population
• Quota sampling
In stratified sampling the cost of taking
random samples from individual strata is often
so expensive that interviewers are simply given
quota to be filled from different strata, the
actual selection of items for sample being left to
the interviewer’s judgement. This is called
quota sampling.
 Probability Sampling
• It is also known as random sampling or chance
sampling. Under this sampling design, each item
of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion
in the sample.
• It is. So to say a lottery method in which
individual units are picked up from the whole
group not deliberately but by some mechanical
process.
• Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is
also known as chance sampling or probability
sampling where each and every item in the
population has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample and each one of the possible samples, in
case of finite universe, has the same probability
of being selected.
• Systematic sampling: In some instances the most
practical way of sampling is to select every 15th
name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a
street and so on. Sampling of this type is known
as systematic sampling.
• Stratified sampling: If the population from which
a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling
technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample. In this technique, the
population is stratified into a number of
nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata and
sample items are selected from each stratum.
• Cluster sampling and area sampling
– Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and
then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample
its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000
customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For
cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could
be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each.
– Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is
often talked about when the total geographical area of
interest happens to be big one.
• Multi-stage sampling: This is a further
development of the idea of cluster sampling.
This technique is meant for big inquiries
extending to a considerably large geographical
area like an entire country.
• Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a
complex sample design where the ultimate size
of the sample is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical
decisions on the basis of information yielded as
survey progresses.
 DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
• In sampling analysis the most ticklish question
is: What should be the size of the sample or
how large or small should be ‘n’? If the sample
size (‘n’) is too small, it may not serve to achieve
the objectives and if it is too large, we may incur
huge cost and waste resources.
• Size of the sample should be determined by a
researcher keeping in view the following points:
• Nature of universe-homogenous or heterogenous
• Number of classes proposed-groups and sub-groups
• Nature of study
• Type of sampling-Sampling technique
• Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level
• Availability of finance
• Other considerations-Nature of units, size of the
population, size of questionnaire, availability of trained
investigators, the conditions under which the sample is
being conducted, the time available for completion of
the study
 Convenience Sampling
• Convenience sampling involves choosing
respondents at the convenience of the researcher.
 Purposive Sampling/Judgement
Sampling
• A purposive sample is one which is selected by
the researcher subjectively.
• The researcher attempts to obtain the sample
that appears to him to be representative of the
population.
• Based on intent
• the process whereby the researcher selects a
sample based on experience or knowledge of the
group to be sampled …called “judgment”
sampling
 Quota sampling
• the process whereby a researcher gathers
data from individuals possessing identified
characteristics and quotas
 Snowball Sampling
• Snowball sampling is a technique where a
researcher picks the first few samples and either
recruits them or asks them to recommend other
subjects they know who fit the description of
samples needed.
• This referral technique goes on and on, increasing
the size of the respondent population like a
snowball rolling down a hill until the researcher
has sufficient data to analyze. Snowball sampling is
also called chain referral sampling.
Snowball Sampling
 Data Preparation: Editing, Coding, Transcribing, Data
Cleaning

• The data, after collection, has to be processed

and analysed in accordance with the outline
laid down for the purpose at the time of
developing the research plan.
• Technically speaking, processing implies
editing, coding, classification and tabulation of
collected data so that they are amenable to
analysis.
 1. Editing
• Editing of data is a process of examining the collected
raw data (specially in surveys) to detect errors and
omissions and to correct these when possible.
• Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate,
consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly
entered, as completed as possible and have been well
arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
• Field editing consists in the review of the
reporting forms by the investigator for completing
(translating or rewriting) what the latter has
written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form at
the time of recording the respondents’
responses.
• Central editing should take place when all forms
or schedules have been completed and returned
to the office. This type of editing implies that all
forms should get a thorough editing by a single
editor in a small study and by a team of editors in
case of a large inquiry.
 2. Coding
• Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals
or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put into a limited number of categories or
classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the
research problem under consideration.
• Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and
through it the several replies may be reduced to a
small number of classes which contain the critical
information required for analysis.
 3. Classification
• Most research studies result in a large volume of raw
data which must be reduced into homogeneous groups
if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact
necessitates classification of data which happens to be
the process of arranging data in groups or classes on
the basis of common characteristics.
• Classification can be one of the following two types,
• Classification according to attributes
• Classification according to class-intervals
 Classification according to
attributes
• data are classified on the basis of common
characteristics which can either be descriptive
(such as literacy, sex, honesty,
etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height,
income, etc.).
 Classification according to class-
intervals
• Data relating to income, production, age,
weight, etc. come under this category. Such
data are known as statistics of variables and
are classified on the basis of class intervals.
• For instance, persons whose incomes, say, are
within Rs 201 to Rs 400 can form one group,
those whose incomes are within Rs 401 to Rs
600 can form another group and so on.
 4. Tabulation
• When a mass of data has been assembled, it
becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange
the same in some kind of concise and logical
order.
• Tabulation is the process of summarising raw
data and displaying the same in compact form
(i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an
orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows.
• Tabulation Essential
• Principles of Tabulation
• Table Structure