The Research Process

The Research Process

The research process is similar to undertaking a journey. For a research process there are two important decisions to make:
What do you want to find out about (what research questions to want to find answers to) How to go about finding their answers.

 The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology.
At each operational step in the research process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help you to best achieve your objectives. This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.

Step 1. Formulating the research problem

There are two types of research problems:
Which relates to status of nature Which relates to the relationships between variables.

Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then ambiguities, if any. Then the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in an enquiry.

Step 2. Extensive Literature Survey

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis/ synopsis of the topic. Therefore, for this purpose the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books, etc., must be tapped depending upon the nature of the problem.

Step 3. Development of Working Hypothesis

Working hypothesis is tentative assumptions made in order to draw out and test the logical or empirical consequences. Research hypothesis development is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.

Step 4. Preparing the Research Design

The research problem having been set, now the researcher will be required to prepare a research design. The function of the research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., Exploration, Description, Diagnosis, and Experimentation.

Step 5. Determining Sample Design

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. The items selected from the universe for the further study and evaluation purposes are thus called sample. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design.

 Deliberate Sampling: is also known as purposive or

non-probability sampling.
This method involves deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population elements are selected for inclusion in sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling. In Judgement sampling researchers judgement is used for selecting items which he considers as representatives of the population. Judgement sampling is used frequently in Qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger population.

 Simple Random Sampling: this is also called as

chance sampling or probability sampling, where every item in the population has the equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of finite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same probability.

 Systematic Sampling: in some instances most

practical way of sampling is to select every even numbered name on the list, or every odd house number from the pool.
As element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick from the list/data. This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the list format. In such design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.

 Stratified Sampling: if the population from which a

sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified technique is applied.
In this technique, the population is stratified in nonoverlapping strata and sample items are selected than from each strata. If the items are selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure is then called as stratified random sampling.

 Quota Sampling: in stratified sampling the cost of

taking random samples from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quote to be filled from different strata.
The actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewers judgement. Quota sampling is thus an important form of nonprobability sampling. Quota sampling generally happens to be judgemental rather than random.

 Cluster Sampling and Area Sampling: this involves

grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal interviews.

Area Sampling: is quite close to cluster sampling

and is often talked about when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one.
Area sampling is helpful where we do not have the list of population concerned. It also make field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.

 Multi-Stage Sampling: this is further development

of the idea of cluster sampling. This techniques are meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under this techniques, first the population is divided in smaller stratum like states, districts, towns, finally certain families. If the techniques of random sampling is applied to all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

 Sequential Sampling: this is a complex sample

design technique where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses.

In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same study, in which case it is called mixed sampling.

Step 6. Collecting the data

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth of hypothesis.

 But in case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
a) By observation: this method implies the collection of information by way of investigators own observation, without interviewing the respondents. b) Through personal interview: the investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of preconceived questions through personal interviews. c) Through telephone interviews. d) By mailing of questionnaires.

Step 7. Analysis of Data

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories. The application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers.

Step 8. Hypothesis Testing

After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary? Various tests, such as, Chi square test, t-test, Ftest, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. Hypothesis may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research enquiry.

Step 9. Generalization and Interpretation

If hypothesis is tested and proved, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, still explanation of the findings can be done on the basis of some theory.

Step 10. Report Writing

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done and proved. The layout of the report should be as follows:
The preliminary pages The main text The end matter.

 In the preliminary pages, report should have its:

Title Acknowledgements Table of Content List of tables or charts, etc Introduction Summary of findings Main report Conclusion

The main context of the report should have:

At the end of the report:

Bibliography Appendices, etc