TYPES OF INTERNET TECH.

PSTN – PSTN stand for ( public switched transport network ) also know as the plain old
telephone system (POTS) is basically the inter-connected telephone system over which
telephone calls are made via copper cable.
• PSTN based on circuit-switching
• Telephone calls are transmit as analog signal across copper wire
 Evolutiution of PSTN

28 JAN 1978 – was first telephone exchange was established in new-haven USA
 Network Structure – Star topology
 Switching technique- Manual switching
Present -
In today PSTN , call routing from source to destination is predominantly contolled by digital
switches that were introduced 1970’s
Apart from voice communication data communicaton also provide in PSTN at present
 In-band signaling – it is the exchange of call control information with in the same
channel ,or with the same frequency band

 Out-band signaling - Out-of-band signaling uses one or more channels for transmitting
data or voice information and one special out-of-band channel for performing signaling
functions such as establishing and terminating the communication link, controlling flow, or
transmitting error information
Ex (SS7)
 Out-of-band refers to the control messages and in-band refers to the actual
communication stream.

• For example, when you dial someone, you type the phone number and
press call. The processing from dialing to ringing until connected is out-
of-band signaling as it involves the control messages to establish a
connection. Once the call is connected, it is in-band signaling where you
communicate directly to the other party using voice packets. Similarly, it
also applies to data packets where when you enable your mobile
data/WiFi, the phone does some pre-connection tasks like
authentication, acquiring resources, get an IP etc. But once you are
connected, then it is in-band when you actually surf the data via
SS7 – ( Signaling system no 7 )
SS7 is a set of protocols allowing phone networks to exchange the information needed for
passing calls and text messages between each other and to ensure correct billing. It also
allows users on one network to roam on another, such as when travelling in a foreign
country.
• Overview
• SS7 (Signaling System 7) separates the information required to set up and manage
telephone calls in the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) onto a separate packet
switched network (Signaling Network). It uses Message Signal Units (MSUs), Link Status
Signal Units (LSSUs), and Fill-In Signal Units (FISUs) as signal units. The main protocols
include MTP (Message Transfer Part - Level 1 to 3), SCCP (Signaling Connection Control
Part), and ISUP (ISDN User Part).
• As a result of introducing new IN services there is a demand for increase in SS7 network
capacity. SS7 High Speed Link (HSL) is defined to meet this requirement which uses entire
T1 (or E1) bandwidth instead of just 56 kbit/s or 64kbit/s to carry SS7 signaling. The HSL
technology can be implemented either using unchannelized HDLC (over MTP2), ATM
(ATM layers replace MTP1 and 2), or SIGTRAN. Traditional LSL links will have up to 24 or
31 links per T1or E1, respectively, while HSL and ATM both have only one link per T1 or
E1.
 Dial-up connection
Dialup internet service is a service that allows connectivity to the internet through a
standard telephone line
Dial-up' is a way accessing the internet on a computer via the public telephone
network, using a device known as a modem.
The primary job of a dial-up modem is to take digital information and convert
it to an analog signal that can travel over a normal telephone phone line. A
modem at the ISP's side then takes the analog signal it receives and
converts it back to a digital signal.
Advantages-
one of the benefits of dial-up service is that if you have a land line, all that
you need is a dial-up account and the modem built into your computer to
connect to the Internet. You don't need to have a special line installed or
have a special DSL modem box. Furthermore, you can take your dial-up
account with you and connect to the Internet anywhere there's a phone
line you can access. This can be useful if you are frequently in areas where
you cannot access high speed Internet services.
Disadvantages –
the key disadvantage of dial-up Internet access is that it is slow. As of the
date of publication, the fastest dial-up modems available have a maximum
speed of 53 kilobits per second -- this equates to 0.053 megabits per
second. Furthermore, when you're using dial-up service,
 Leased line
A leased line, also known as a dedicated line, connects two locations for private voice and/or
data telecommunication service. A leased line is not a dedicated cable; it is a reserved
circuit between two points. The leased line is always active and available for a fixed
monthly fee.
Leased lines are most commonly rented by businesses to connect branch offices of the
organization.
 Leased lines are mostly used by businesses to connect their distant offices. They are
always active, unlike dial-up connections. A leased line is renewed on a yearly basis. It
may carry voice, data, or both. The main benefits of leased lines are that they are private,
so the security level is higher along with speed, reliability, and resilience.
 Leased line is a wire connection or wireless connection both.
 It does not have a telephone number, unlike traditional PSTN lines. Each side of the line is
connected to the other.
 T1 and E1 –
• Initially they are carry voice information with in the company network
• Both are TDM technologies to transmit multiple voice /data channel over a single line .
• The bit rate of single channel is 64kbps
• E1 is European standard and T1 is American
• These line allow the long distance communication with high quality.
T3 and E3 –
• T3 and E3 has an even higher speed 45Mbps this is because a T3 is made up of
672.64Kbps channel
E1 carrier-

E1 carrier 30+2 channel

30 channel for voice/data
02 channel for controlling
Channels= 8bits
Total bits 8*32=256
Sampling frequency =8KHz
Data rate per channel =8*8000 =64Kbps
32*64=2048 = 2.048Mbps
T1 carrier –

T1 carries 24 channel
24 channel for voice/data + it has 1 framing bit
Channel =8 bits
Total bits =(8*24)+1 = 192+1=193
Sampling frequency = 8kHz
Data rate per channel 8*8000= 64Kbps
(64*24=1536) +(1*8=8)= 1536+8=1544 =1.544Mbps
• A large company needs something more than a T1 line. The following list shows some
of the common line designations:
• DS0 - 64 k­ilobits per second
• ISDN - Two DS0 lines plus signaling (16 kilobytes per second), or 128 kilobits per second
• T1 - 1.544 megabits per second (24 DS0 lines)
• T3 - 43.232 megabits per second (28 T1s)
• OC3 - 155 megabits per second (84 T1s)
• OC12 - 622 megabits per second (4 OC3s)
• OC48 - 2.5 gigabits per seconds (4 OC12s)
• OC192 - 9.6 gigabits per second (4 OC48s)
• The CSU/DSU is connected to the four-wire termination of the DDS line by means of an M-
block connector, a screw terminal block, or some other connection mechanism. The Channel
Service Unit (CSU) converts the data signal into a bipolar signal suitable for transmission over
the telecommunications link.
• The DDS lines themselves use four wires and support speeds of 64 Kbps, but 8 Kbps of
bandwidth is usually reserved for signaling, so the actual data throughput is usually only 56
Kbps.

V.35
In modern PSTN network, analog signal coming from customer side, converted into a digital
signal at central office (PCM).

PCM – In PCM (pulse code modulation ), an analog signal is sampled and converted to a
binary series (digital signal )
 Switched 56 –
A digital switched-data communication technology that provide full-duplex dial-up connection at a speed 56Kbps .
Switched 56 is essentially the dial-up version of digital data service (DDS) and generally cheaper than leased-
line services .

A device called a data set, which is a type of (DSU),provides switched 56 services to customer premises for a
typical LAN connection.
A router on the LAN attached to the data set by using a v.35 serial interface
Switched 56 uses the same communication channel DS0(digital signal 0) used single voice call. you can established
circuit by manually by entering the destination number by using in-band signaling when connecting bridges or
routers to the services.
Types of services -
Service 1 – uses a two-pair (4-wire) connection and is supported up to 5500m from the CO over standard 26-
gauage copper twisted-pair wiring .
Service2 – uses a one-pair (2-wire) connection with in-band signaling . This type is not widely implemented .
Service 3- Uses a one pair (2-wire) connection with out of band signaling and is supported up to 5500m from the
CO on 22gauage or 24-gauage copper twisted-pair wiring and include forward error correction for enhance data
transmission.
Type -3 is to be full-duplex , in reality time compressing multiplexing (TCM) rapidly switches half-duplex
communication at 160Kbps to simulate full-duplex at 56Kbps
Some carriers offer other higher speed versions of switched 56. For example, some carriers
offer switched 56 as a 64-Kbps service under the name switched 64. Other higher dial-
up services include switched 384 and switched 1536, although these are not widely
offered anymore.
NOTE -
• Switched 56 is a data-only service that is often available where Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) is not available. However, switched 56 does not support
advanced ISDN features such as caller ID and has greater latency for establishing a
connection. The cost is typically billed in the same way that ordinary telephone calls
are - that is, local calls are free and long distance is billed by the minute.
• Dial-up switched 56 can be a good service to use as a backup wide area network (WAN)
link between two networks connected by expensive T1 lines. It is being phased out in
most places in favor of ISDN.
 Today’s leased line –
Leased line is both wireless and wire connection. Fiber and wireless are two ways of delivering the
same thing: a high-speed internet connection. The installation methods may differ but they
share the same benefits.
A fiber leased line is also known as fiber to the premises (FTTP). A fiber optic
cable connects your office to your internet service provider’s (ISP) supply
point via an underground cable. The fiber optic cables themselves are about
the size of human hair and reflect light, which makes for a fast internet
connection.

• Wireless leased lines use rooftop antenna to provide your building with an
internet connection.
• Instead of reaching out to the local internet supplier and asking them to
provide a cable, your ISP installs the antenna directly. They do this by
attaching it to the roof of your premises.
Similarities b/w fiber and wireless –
• Superfast speeds
• Uncontended bandwidth
• Low latency
• Scalability
• Symmetrical uploads and downloads
ISDN –
ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network is a circuit-switched telephone network system
that transmits both data and voice over a digital line. You can also think of it as a set of
communication standards to transmit data, voice, and signaling.
• These digital lines could be copper lines. It was designed to move outdated landline
technology to digital.
• ISDN connections have a reputation for providing better speeds and higher quality than
traditional connections. Faster speeds and better connections allow data transmissions to
travel more reliably.
• ISDN is a dial-up service that goes through a singular line. DSL connections never need to
dial. They are sometimes called “always-on connections.”
ISDN services -
1. bearer services –
• To transport digital voice or non-voice services using ISDN services.
• Transfer service (voice, data and video)
• Basic rate 64Kbps
• It uses circuit switching, packet switching, cell switching , frame switching
• OSI layer 1,2,3 belong to this

2. Teleservices –
• OSI layer 4.5.6 belong to this
• Telephony, tele-fax, video-fax , tele-conferencing.

3. Supplementary services –
• Additional functionality to the bearer services and tele-services
• This services include call waiting, reverse charging and message handling ,caller-id
ISDN functional grouping –
Several combination that enable user to access the services of the BRI and PRI in ISDN switching.
The functional grouping used at the subscriber primes include network termination 1 and 2) (NT1) and
(NT2) . Terminal equipment 1 and 2 (TE1) and (TE2) and terminal adapters (TA).
Terminal equipment 1 –
TE1 are ISDN terminating like video-conferencing equipment , feature telephone which are digital
and can be directly connected to NT through S bus interface
Terminal equipment 2 –
TE2 are non-ISDN terminates such as analog phone ,PC, G3,FAX which are non digital and can not be
directly connected to NT1. they required another interface called terminal Adaptor (TA)
Terminal Adaptor (TA) -
TA enable analog to digital conversion and vice versa ex- (RS-232, X.21, V.35, )
NT 1 –
• Terminates local loop
• coding and transmission conversion
• Maintenance & performance monitoring
• Consider a CSU
NT 2 -
• Typically a PBX
• Providing switching function
• Handles layer2 and layer3 protocols.

ISDN reference point –

There are four reference point R,S,T and U
R point – it define connection b/w TE2 and TA .R interface not define by the ISDN
S point - it define connection
TA and NT1
TE1 and NT1
TE2 and NT2
• A maximum of 8TE’s can be connected to one ISDN line through ‘S’ bus wiring
• But two is use at a time
T point –
• Interface b/w NT2 and NT1
• S and T reference point are ,generally collapsed into S/T reference point
U point –
• Interface b/w NT1 and the ISDN office
ISDN channel types –
 A – 4KHz analog telephone
 B - 64Kbps digital channel for voice and data (PCM codec style A to D)
 C - 8Kbps or 16Kbps for digital
 D- 16Kbps out of band signaling
 E - 64Kbps ISDN signaling
 H - 384Kbps,1536Kbps or 1920Kbps digital channel
What are the types of ISDNs?
There are two types of ISDN networks — BRI (Basic Rate Interface) and PRI (Primary Rate Interface).
• BRI is the lower tier of service. It only provides basic needs at a lower cost.
• PRI is the main service. It provides a better connection, more reliable service, and faster speeds.

BRI (Basic Rate Interface) –

The BRI configuration provides 2 data (bearer) channels (B channels) at 64 kbit/s each and 1 control
(delta) channel (D channel) at 16 kbit/s. The B channels are used for voice or user data, and the D
channel is used for any combination of data, control/signaling, and X.25 packet networking

PRI (Primary rate interface) –

PRI is the standard for providing telecommunication services to enterprises and offices. It is based on
T-carrier (T1) transmission in the US, Canada, and Japan, while the E-carrier (E1) is common in
Europe and Australia. The T1 line consists of 23 bearer (B) channels and one data (D) channel for
control purposes, Twenty-three B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 64 Kbps equals
1.536 Mbps. The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI requires a digital pipe of
1.544 Mbps.
What is Broadband ISDN?
Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network (B-ISDN) is a standard for transmitting voice data
and video at the same time over fiber optic telephone lines. It is a next-gen technology.
Broadband ISDN can support data rates up to 2 Mbps which is an improvement on the original
ISDN bandwidth rate of 64Kbps or 128Kbps when using both connections. The B-ISDN was
envisaged to run over ATM carrying both the synchronous voice and the asynchronous data on
the same transport bearer.
One of the underlying motives to develop ISDN was to provide subscribers with a wide variety of
services direct to their home. These included video telephony, video surveillance, high speed
Internet, High Definition TV, and these services would require delivery at different bit rates
and with different time constraints. For example video and TV have greater time constraints’
than data. B-ISDN over ATM was considered a good fit as ATM could handle various contracts
based on the service required. The only problem was that ATM had a small payload size of only
48KB and an overhead of 5 Bytes making it an extensive transport protocol. I.E. 5/53 x 100/1 =
9.9% overhead
Physical layer support for B-ISDN is provided asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and
synchronous optical network (SONET) . Typical ISDN data rate are 51Mbps, 155Mbps and
622Mbps over fiber optic media.
x.25 –
X.25 is a protocol suite defined by ITU-T for packet switched communications over WAN
(Wide Area Network). It was originally designed for use in the 1970s and became very
popular in 1980s. Presently, it is used for networks for ATMs and credit card verification. It
allows multiple logical channels to use the same physical line. It also permits data
exchange between terminals with different communication speeds.
X.25 Packet Switched networks allow remote devices to communicate with each other over
private digital links without the expense of individual leased lines.
An X.25 network consists of a network of interconnected nodes to which user equipment can
connect. The user end of the network is known as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and
the carrier’s equipment is Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) . X.25 routes packets
across the network from DTE to DTE.
Layer 1: The Physical Layer is concerned with electrical or signaling. It includes several electrical
standards including V.35 , RS232 and X.21.
Layer 2: The Data Link Layer It comprises the link access procedures for exchanging data over the
link. Here, control information for transmission over the link is attached to the packets from the
packet layer to form the LAPB frame (Link Access Procedure Balanced). This service ensures a
bit-oriented, error-free, and ordered delivery of frames.
Layer 3: The Network Layer that governs the end-to-end communications between the different
DTE devices. Layer 3 is concerned with connection set-up and teardown and flow control
between the DTE devices, as well as network routing functions and the multiplexing of
simultaneous logical connections over a single physical connection.
• X.25 permits a DTE user on an X.25 network to communicate with a number of remote DTE’s
simultaneously. Connections occur on logical channels of two types:
• Switched virtual circuits (SVC‘s) – SVC’s are very much like telephone calls; a connection is
established, data are transferred and then the connection is released. Each DTE on the network
is given a unique DTE address which can be used much like a telephone number.
• Permanent virtual circuits (PVC‘s) – a PVC is similar to a leased line in that the connection is
always present. The logical connection is established permanently by the Packet Switched
Network administration. Therefore, data may always be sent, without any call setup.
With the widespread acceptance of Internet Protocol (IP) as a standard for
corporate networks, X.25 applications migrated to cheaper solutions
using IP as the network layer protocol and replacing the lower layers of
X.25 with Ethernet or with new ATM hardware.
X.25 was used upto 2015 by PCI
Public switch exchange (PSE) Public data network (PDN)
Advantages • Disadvantages
• It is reliable protocol • It offer low data rate upto 64Kbps
• It has faster response time • Used for data only
• Each DTE device has a unique
number like telephone number.
Frame relay –
Frame Relay is a packet-switching technology offered as a telecommunications service by
telcos and long-distance carriers, used primarily for WAN links. Frame relay can be used
to encapsulate local area network (LAN) traffic such as Ethernet frames for transmission
over digital data transmission lines for wide area networks (WANs) and can connect
multiple LANs to form a multipoint WAN. Frame relay technology was originally an
offshoot of Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) digital communication
technology.

How It Works – Frame Relay –

• Frame relay technology is a packet-switching service that is similar in operation to, and
considered the replacement for, the older X.25 packet-switching technology – but it
provides higher performance and has a greater efficiency because it is a more
streamlined protocol. For example, while X.25 includes error-correction functions,
frame relay leaves error correction up to the station endpoints in order to speed up
WAN communications. When errors do occur, frame relay drops the offending frame
and retransmits the data. Frame relay also does not support the hop-by-hop flow
control functions that X.25 supports, which further streamlines frame relay operation.
• Frame relay is a protocol-independent service that uses special frame relay devices for
encapsulating network data into variable-length packets called frames using the data-
link layer protocol called High-level Data Link Control (HDLC).

• Frame relay runs over T1 and fractional T1 carriers with transmission speeds ranging
from 56 Kbps to 1.544 Mbps or higher. Since frame relay is independent of network
protocols such as TCP/IP and IPX/SPX-Compatible Protocol, it has more flexibility than
X.25.
• To connect a network to a telco Frame Relay Bearer Service (FRBS), use a special bridge,
router, or CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) device called a frame relay
access device (FRAD). The FRAD connects your customer premises to an Edge Switch
(ES) on your provider’s frame relay cloud (the collection of all frame relay circuits
belonging to your provider).
Virtual circuit -
• Connection in frame relay provide by virtual circuit
• Multiple logical connection on same physical connection

DLCI –
• Data link connection identifier
• Identify virtual circuit
• Range (16-1007)
• Given by service provider
• Local DLCI maps with remote ip address
• Manual automatic mapping (inverse ARP)
ATM –
ATM stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode, is a high-speed, broadband transmission data
communication technology based on packet switching, which is used by telcos, long
distance carriers, and campus-wide backbone networks to carry integrated data, voice,
and video information.

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a switching technique used by

telecommunication networks that uses asynchronous time-division
multiplexing to encode data into small, fixed-sized cells. This is different
from Ethernet or internet, which use variable packet sizes for data or
frames. ATM is the core protocol used over the synchronous optical
network (SONET) backbone of the integrated digital services network
(ISDN).
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) can be used as the underlying
technology for Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI),
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET), and other high-speed networks.
Plus, ATM can run on any media including coax, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic.

• ATM is a connection-oriented protocol that can work with either

permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) or switched virtual circuits (SVCs),
depending on your wide area network (WAN) traffic needs. ATM networks
use bandwidth at maximum efficiency while maintaining a guaranteed
quality of service (QoS) for users and applications that require it. The two
main benefits of ATM are its high transmission speeds and its flexible
bandwidth-on-demand capability.
How ATM work?
• The «asynchronous» in ATM means ATM devices do not send and receive information at
fixed speeds or using a timer, but instead negotiate transmission speeds based on
hardware and information flow reliability. The “transfer mode” in ATM refers to the fixed-
size cell structure used for packaging information. This cell-based transmission is in
contrast to typical local area network (LAN) variable-length packet mechanisms, which
means that ATM connections are predictable and can be managed so that no single data
type or connection can monopolize the transmission path.
• ATM technology originated in broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) technology and works primarily
at layer 2 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. ATM connects
devices over a WAN using virtual channels (VCs) and virtual paths (VPs). Virtual channels
consist of one or more physical ATM links connected in a series for transmitting data
between remote stations. A VC exists only while data is being transmitted on it, and all
cells in a given ATM transmission follow the same VC to ensure reliable data transmission.
A virtual path is a collection of VCs having the same source and destination points that
can be used to pool traffic being transmitted to a given destination.
• ATM is a connection-oriented technology that requires the
establishment of a specific network path between two points
before data can be transported between them. Typically a
subscriber would lease a T1 or T3 line to connect their
customer premises equipment to the telecommunication carrier’s
ATM network, but frame relay or SONET can also be used to
connect a site to an ATM network. The kind of CPE needed varies
with the access method employed—for example,
Channel Service Unit (CSU) for T1 line,
frame relay access device (FRAD) or router for frame relay, and so
on. Large corporate networks using an ATM backbone might use a
switch-to-switch connection to the carrier’s network instead of
CPE.
• ATM uses fixed-size packets called “cells.” Each 53-byte ATM cell contains
48 bytes of data payload and 5 bytes of control and routing information
in the header. The header provides addressing information for switching
the packet to its destination. The payload section carries the actual
information, which can be data, voice, or video. The payload is properly
called the user information field. The reason for choosing 48 bytes as the
payload size is to compromise between the optimal cell sizes for carrying
voice information (32 bytes) and data information (64 bytes). The fixed
size of an ATM cell makes ATM traffic simple and predictable and makes
it possible for ATM to operate at high speeds. Typical ATM speeds vary
with transmission media and can include:
• 25 Mbps over unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) category 5 cabling
• 155 Mbps over either UTP or fiber-optic cabling
• 622 Mbps and 4.8 Gbps over fiber-optic cabling only
ATM optimizes performance through different classes of service, which can be allocated
through QoS settings. This is different from frame relay, which is a classless service. The
four classes of ATM services that subscribers can specify depending on their needs are:
• Constant Bit Rate (CBR):
• This service level is suitable for applications that are sensitive to cell delay and cell loss,
must have continual availability, and do not require much bandwidth (for example, voice
traffic).
• Variable Bit Rate/Realtime (VBR-RT):
• This level is suitable for applications that are sensitive to cell delay and cell loss and
require a large amount of bandwidth (for example, videoconferencing).
• Variable Bit Rate/Non-Realtime (VBR-NRT):
• This level is suitable for applications that require a large amount of bandwidth but can
tolerate some cell delay and cell loss (for example, video playback).
• Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR) or Available Bit Rate (ABR):
• This level is suitable for network services that do not have special bandwidth or cell
latency/loss needs (for example, file transfer or e-mail)
ATM architecture –
• ATM is a cell-switched network. The user access devices, called
the endpoints, are
• connected through a user-to-network interface (UNI) to the
switches inside the network.
• The switches are connected through network-to-network
interfaces (NNIs).
• Figure 18.9 shows an example of an ATM network.
SONET/SDH –
SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a communication protocol, developed
by Bellcore – that is used to transmit a large amount of data over relatively large distances
using optical fibre. With SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at the same
time over the optical fibre.
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) networks can carry voice, video, and data
simultaneously and are often used by telecommunications providers to provide the
underlying transport mechanism for Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networking in
internal telco and long-distance carrier networks. SONET can also be used as the underlying
transport for Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN), and Switched Multimegabit Data Services (SMDS) communication.

• Key Points:
• Developed by Bellcore
• Used in North America
• Standardized by ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
• Similar to SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) which is used in Europe and Japan.
Synchronous –
All system clocks are synchronized with a master clock . All clock may be out of phase but run
at same frequency .
Plesiochronous –
All system clock run at the same time frequency with a defined precision.

Aschronoyous –
system clock are not synchronized . Tx and Rx have independent clock .
• Multiplex electrical signal (digital signal ) from different source and creates optical carrier.
• USA, Canada and Japan developed T1 standard
• ANSI developed SONET
• The rest of the world use a primary rate E1
• ITU-T developed SDH

Why use SONET/SDH

• Standard MUX format
• Optical standard utilize max. bandwidth of optical network
• Easy administration and OAM (VC or VT level monitoring is possible )
• To reduce the complexity of PDH
• To accommodate existing signal structure
• To create space for future demands
SONET data rate -
• STS- 1 (synchronous transport signal )
Data rate STS-1 SPE = synchronous payload envelope
90*9*8*8000 = 51840000 86*9*8*8000 = 49536000
= 51.84 Mb = 49.53Mb

Speed of SONET = 8000frame/sec 1Byte=8bit

Size of 1 frame = 90*9*8 =6480 bit
G

h
Path layer:
• It is responsible for the movement of signal from optical source (STS multiplexer) to optical
destination (STS demux. Path overhead are added here and make SPE .
• Data identification inside the SPE (ATM,IP or etc)
• Path status checking
• Multi frame indication if data is not fit in one frame
• Path end to end verification
• Some bytes reserved for future use

Line layer:
• Line layer is responsible for the movement signal b/w mux, demux and ADM. line overhead are
added here .
• Error checking over a line
• operation, Administration and maintenance signal over a line
• Order wire comm. Over a line level
• Automatic protection switching
• Some bytes reserved for future use
Section layer :
• It is responsible for the movement b/w every section /device . Section overhead are
added here
• Alignment, framing and synchronization
• Error checking over a section
• Frame identification
• Operation, administration, and maintenance signaling over a section
• Order wire comm. Over section level

Photonic layer:
• It is the identical to the physical layer of OSI model
• g
SONET network element –
Regenerator:
It is used to extend the SONET range link. It converts OC into electrical signal , amplify and
reconvert it into OC.
SDH –
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a standard technology for synchronous data
transmission on optical media. It is the international equivalent of
Synchronous Optical Network. Both technologies provide faster and less expensive
network interconnection than traditional PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)
equipment.

SDH uses the following Synchronous Transport Modules (STM) and rates: STM-1 (155
megabits per second), STM-4 (622 Mbps), STM-16 (2.5 gigabits per second), and STM-64
(10 Gbps).

ITU developed SDH

SDH used Europe , Japan and rest of the world
Speed of SDH = 8000 frame/sec
• 270 column
• 9 row
• Row by row transmission
• Time period 125µs
• Each byte represent 64Kbps
• Total byte=270*9=2430
• Each byte=08 bits
• Total bits =2430*8=19440
• Frame frequency=8000
• Time period =1/8000=125µs
• Data rate of one byte=8*8000
=64Kbps
• Data rate of frame
=19440* 8000=155Mb
Data rate STM-1 SPE (synchronous payload envelope)

9*270*8*8000 9*260*8*8000
=155.520Mbps = 149.760Mbps
• Section overhead :
Overhead basically same job everywhere (mang., control, alarm etc) in SDH network,
Overhead are coupled with network architecture to simplify the task

Regenerator section overhead (RSOH)

Pointer (AU-PTR)

It indicates the first byte of virtual container . Its function become important in case of
asynchronous case.
Multiplex section overhead (MSOH)
Regenerator :
it regenerates the attenuated signal

Terminal mux or path terminal element (PTE)

It is end point device . It combines the lower level of signals into STM-N signal

ADD/DROP MUX
in ring setup, it perform the add and drop of multiple level of signals

Digital Cross Connect (DXX)

it perform switching function for various series of containers
DSL (Digital subscriber line )
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a telecommunications technology for providing high-speed
transmission to subscribers over the existing copper wire twisted-pair local loop between
the customer premises and the telco’s central office (CO).
• After traditional modems reached their peak data rate, telephone companies developed
another technology, DSL, to provide higher-speed access to the Internet.
• DSL technology is a set of technologies , each differing in the first letter (ADSL, VDSL,
HDSL, and SDSL). The set is often referred to as ads, where x can be replaced by A, V, H,
or S.
• The Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technology was designed to provide high-speed data
and video-on-demand services to subscribers at speeds much faster than
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).
• The essential advantage of using DSL is that it allows much faster data transmission rates
over existing copper local loop telephone lines than traditional modems.
• How it works
DSL is not a specific digital line technology but rather a form of digital modem technology
that defines the signaling processes for high-speed, end-to-end digital transmission over
the existing copper twisted-pair wiring of the local loop. DSL accomplishes this by using
advanced signal processing and digital modulation techniques. However, with DSL, the
digital signals are not converted to analog or vice versa; instead, the signals remain
digital for the complete communication path from the customer premises to the telco’s
CO.
Usually, a DSL modem and a signal splitter are installed at the customer premises to
separate voice and data signals. DSL modems can use a variety of modulation
methods, including carrierless amplitude and phase modulation (CAP) or discrete
multitone (DMT) technology modulation, depending on the vendor’s
implementation. At the telco’s CO, a Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer
(DSLAM) connects subscribers to a high-speed Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
backbone.
DSLAM
A DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer) is a network
device, usually at a telephone company central office, that receives
signals from multiple customer Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
connections and puts the signals on a high-speed backbone line
using multiplexing techniques. Depending on the product, DSLAM
multiplexers connect DSL lines with some combination of
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), frame relay, or Internet Protocol
networks. DSLAM enables a phone company to offer business or
homes users the fastest phone line technology (DSL) with the fastest
backbone network technology (ATM)
DSLAMs also come with many advanced traffic management features to separate and
prioritize voice, video, and data traffic.
• By xDSL Type: Single-Service DSLAMs vs. Multiservice DSLAMs

• DSLAMs can be either classified as single-service or multiservice units.

Single-service DSLAMs only have the capacity of supporting one xDSL
technology. Most single-service system DSLAM units will boast backwards
compatibility with previous versions of the xDSL type they support. An
ADSL2+ DSLAM for example, will boast backwards compatibility with
ADSL2 and ADSL, the two previous generations of the ADSL2+.
• Multiservice DSLAMs have the capacity of supporting several xDSL
technologies. Multiservice DSLAMs allows ISPs or carriers to address the
different broadband needs of their customers. For example, a DSLAM
chassis that supports VDSL and ADSL line cards gives service providers
the advantage of delivering high-speed broadband to customers in short
(using VDSL) and long distances ranges (using ADSL). To learn more about
the difference between VDSL and ADSL, click here. Multiservice DSLAMs
allow ISPs to address scalability, port density and redundant architecture
requirements for large-scale deployments.
DSLAM
• Using Patton’s ForeFront VDSL2 DSLAM, up to 24 full service links can be
routed throughout campus and various MxU environments. The Model
FF3210P aggregates the IP services delivered from the ISP or Service
Providers with the POTS delivered from the PSTN. The POTS and
Ethernet signals are then aggregated and sent over an already existing 2-
wire telephony grade connection. The VDSL2 standalone unit is placed in
each room to split the signal back into Ethernet (data) and POTS/ISDN
(voice) for delivery to the end-user. Channel selectable symmetrical data
rates up to 100 Mbps allow for a differentiation of services, and
increased distance capabilities.
Rj-21 code
DSL actually represents a family of related services commonly referred to as
“xDSL,” which includes the following:

• Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), which allocates line bandwidth

asymmetrically with downstream (CO to customer premises) data rates of up
to 9 Mbps and upstream rates of up to 640 Kbps, depending on the
implementation
• High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL), which supports high-speed, full-
duplex communication up to T1 or E2 speeds over multiple twisted-pair lines
• Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL), which supports standard telephone
communication and T1 or E1 data communication over a single twisted-pair
line
• Very High-rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL), which supports downstream
speeds of up to 52 Mbps over short distances
QAM-
QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) is a method of combining two amplitude-
modulated (AM) signals into a single channel, thereby doubling the effective bandwidth.
QAM is used with pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) in digital systems,
THANK YOU