Ethics Unit 8

Making Right Decisions
in Life
Unit 8
Learning Objectives
01 02 03
DISCUSS THE MAKE A REFLECTION CREATE A POSITION
VARIOUS ETHICAL APPLYING THE PAPER STATING
CONSIDERATIONS THEORIES AND ESSENTIAL ACTIONS
BEFORE MAKING PRINCIPLES OF TO BE DONE BASED
DECISIONS ETHICS TO ONE’S ON THE PRINCIPLE
MORAL EXPERIENCE OF ETHICS
The Value of Studying Ethical Theories or
Framework
 Socrates’ emphasis on knowledge rather than ignorance make us
realize that we need to educate ourselves and be conscious in our
actions.
 Plato’s emphasis too that we need to decide using our reason rather
than our passions, emotions, and sensation make us realize the
importance of thinking before we do an act.
 Aristotle’s ethics helped us reflect our own habits and daily
practices whether they lead us towards developing a good character.
 Aquinas’ emphasis on the natural law taught us that our
decisions and actions in life must be right in itself based on the
fundamental nature of human life.
 Kantian ethics reminds us of our faculty and capacity as human
beings that we do have our intellect and the rational will to
choose what we are ought to do.
 Bentham’s and Mill’s theory on utilitarianism aided us not be
selfish in our decisions and actions in life but to consider always
the greater happiness of the greatest number of people.
The Moral Agent and Contexts
 Ramon C. Reyes – a Filipino philosophers who provided with a
comprehensive discussions on the moral agent.
 Dr. Reyes pointed out that the moral agent is a product of many cross-points
in life. These cross-points are the forces and events that transpired outside of
one’s choices.
 These are the physical, the interpersonal, the social and the historical cross-
points.
 These cross-points shaped the moral agent and greatly influenced his
decisions and actions in life.
 Physical cross-point – the moral agent is a product of his biological
nature. The moral agent is a byproduct of genetic material. This means
that each one of us did not choose to be born as a human being. We
did not choose our parents, our race and etc. These things were
naturally given to us not by our choice whether we like them or not.
 Interpersonal factor - there were many events in our personal life that
did not involve our choice. For instance, we did not choose how we
were raised by our parents, what character traits and personality to be
taught to us. We are shaped by the interpersonal relationships we have
in life.
 Society – society here means your culture. The moral agent is molded by
the kind of society and culture he lives with in which for some parts he
did not choose. Ex. Our language, religion and values.
 Historical events – the moral agent is shaped by the historical events that
he has undergone in life. Our past shaped us of who we are right now.
However, being a product of these four cross-points is just a “one side”

of the moral agent. Dr. Reyes claimed that the moral agent is also a future
project since the moral agent has this freedom.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s
Development of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg (1981)
 As children develop cognitive skills and social skills, they
also develop a sense of right and wrong.
 In Kohlberg’s view, moral reasoning moves from being
focused on the self to being increasingly focused on others,
with a basis in clear personal principles of morality and
ethics.
Dillema:
A woman was near death from special kind of cancer. There
was one drug that doctor thought might save her. But the
druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to
produce and charge $2,000. The sick woman’s husband
went to everyone he knew to borrow the money but still the
amount he collected was not enough. He got desperate and
broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife.
Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to get the
drug for his wife?
Three Stages of Moral Reasoning
1. Pre-Conventional Stage – Focusing on avoiding punishment or maximizing
rewards. Children obey rules because their parents tell them to comply.
- Judgements are based on personal needs
“Heinz should not steal the drug because he will get in trouble and go to jail.”
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The
child/individual is good to avoid being punished. If a person is punished,
they must have done wrong.
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, the child learns to act according
to what he thinks can serve his self-interest. Different individuals have different
viewpoints.
2. Conventional Stage – at this level, the person values caring,
trust and relationships as well as social order and lawfulness.
Rules are rules and they are not to be broken.
- Judgments are based on needs of society
“Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is wrong.
Society can not function if people steal all the time.”
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is
good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore,
answers relate to the approval of others.
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes
aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules
to uphold the law and avoid guilt.
3. Post-conventional level – person acknowledges both the norm and the law.
Willing to break the law – and suffer the consequences- if it is perceived as unjust
or immoral.
- Judgments balance needs of society with personal convictions.
“Although it is legally wrong, Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife’s
life. But he also has to be willing to suffer the consequences and go to jail if need
be.”
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware
that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times
when they will work against the interest of particular individuals.
Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of
moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
Moral Problems and Moral Decision
Various steps in making informed decisions:
Step 1. Identifying and setting up the Moral Problem
We must clarify the issue for us to be able to state or define the ethical issue
involved in the case.
Step 2. What are the relevant facts?
We need to examine also some potential economic, social, or political pressures
that surround or maybe related to the moral problem.
Step 3. Who are the Stakeholders?
It is important to identify the stakeholders who will be affected by the ethical
decision to be made.
Step 4. What are the available options?
It is important to list down at least three. As Aristotle remarks, there are at least two
and these two often represents the extremes.
Step 5. Determine the most appropriate action

Ethicists claim that this is the most difficult part of the process of moral decision-
making.
Step 6. Double-checking the Decision
First, moral judgements must be backed by good reasons. Avoid subjectivism. Second,
moral theories should be brought into play.

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Making Right Decisions

However, being a product of these four cross-points is just a “one side”

Step 5. Determine the most appropriate action

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