Module

 7:  ethical  behavior     1  

Your  Passport  to  Professionalism:  Module  7  

Ethical  Behavior  
Steps  in  this  module:                      
1. Learn: Read the following document on ethics.

2. Complete the case study Framework for Ethical Decision Making

3. Go to “Earn Your Stamp” and complete the reflection activity.

 
Step  1—Learn                      
Introduction
Thinking Ethically

This document is designed as an introduction to thinking ethically. We all have an image of

our better selves - of how we are when we act ethically or are "at our best." We probably also
have an image of what an ethical community, an ethical business, an ethical government, or an
ethical society should be. Ethics really has to do with all these levels - acting ethically as
individuals, creating ethical organizations and governments, and making our society as a whole
ethical in the way it treats everyone.

What is Ethics?

Simply stated, ethics refers to standards of behavior

that tell us how human beings ought to act in the many
situations in which they find themselves-as friends,
parents, children, citizens, businesspeople, teachers,
professionals, and so on.
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It is helpful to identify what ethics is NOT:

• Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important information for our
ethical choices. Some people have highly developed habits that make them feel bad
when they do something wrong, but many people feel good even though they are doing
something wrong. And often our feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to do the right
thing if it is hard.

• Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but ethics applies to everyone.
Most religions do advocate high ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the
types of problems we face.

• Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does incorporate many ethical
standards, but law can deviate from what is ethical. Law can become ethically corrupt,
as some totalitarian regimes have made it. Law can be a function of power alone and
designed to serve the interests of narrow groups. Law may have a difficult time
designing or enforcing standards in some important areas, and may be slow to address
new problems.

• Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Some cultures are quite ethical,
but others become corrupt - or blind to certain ethical concerns (as the United States
was to slavery before the Civil War). "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is not a
satisfactory ethical standard.

• Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide important data to help us
make better ethical choices. But science alone does not tell us what we “ought” to do.
Science may provide an explanation for what humans are like. But ethics provides
reasons for how humans ought to act. And just because something is scientifically or
technologically possible, it may not be ethical to do it.
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Why Identifying Ethical Standards is Hard

There are two fundamental problems in identifying the ethical standards we are to follow:

1. On what do we base our ethical standards?

2. How do those standards get applied to specific situations we face?

If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, accepted social practice, or science, what
are they based on? Many philosophers and ethicists have helped us answer this critical
question. They have suggested at least five different sources of ethical standards we should
use.

Five  Sources  of  Ethical  Standards      

The Utilitarian Approach
Some ethicists emphasize that the ethical action is the one that provides the
most good or does the least harm, or, to put it another way, produces the
greatest balance of good over harm. The ethical corporate action, then, is the
one that produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who
are affected-customers, employees, shareholders, the community, and the
environment. For instance, “ethical warfare” balances the good achieved in
ending terrorism with the harm done to all parties through death, injuries, and destruction of war.
The utilitarian approach deals with consequences; it tries both to increase the good done and to
reduce the harm done.

The Rights Approach

Other philosophers and ethicists suggest that the ethical action is the
one that best protects and respects the moral rights of those
affected. This approach starts from the belief that all humans have
dignity based on their human nature per se or on their ability to choose
freely what they do with their lives. On the basis of such dignity, they
have a right to be treated as ends and not merely as means to other
ends. The list of moral rights - including the rights to make one's own choices about what kind of
life to lead, to be told the truth, not to be injured, to a degree of privacy, and so on-is widely
debated; some now argue that non-humans have rights, too. Also, it is often said that rights
imply duties - in particular, the duty to respect others' rights.

The Fairness or Justice Approach

Aristotle and other Greek philosophers have contributed the idea that all
equals should be treated equally. Today we use this idea to say that
ethical actions treat all human beings equally - or if unequally, then fairly
based on some standard that is defensible. We pay people more based
on their harder work or the greater amount that they contribute to an
organization, and say that is fair. But there is a debate over CEO salaries
that are hundreds of times larger than the pay of others; many ask
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whether the huge disparity is based on a defensible standard or whether it is the result of an
imbalance of power and hence is unfair.

The Common Good Approach

The Greek philosophers have also contributed the notion that life in community is a good in itself
and our actions should contribute to that life. This approach suggests that the interlocking
relationships of society are the basis of ethical reasoning and that
respect and compassion for all others-especially the vulnerable -
are requirements of such reasoning. This approach also calls attention
to the common conditions that are important to the welfare of everyone. This
may be a system of laws, effective police and fire departments, health
care, a public educational system, or even public recreational areas.

The Virtue Approach

A very ancient approach to ethics is that ethical actions ought to
be consistent with certain ideal virtues that provide for the full
development of our humanity. These virtues are dispositions and
habits that enable us to act according to the highest potential of
our character and on behalf of values like truth and beauty.
Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, tolerance, love, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-
control, and prudence are all examples of virtues. Virtue ethics asks of any action, "What kind
of person will I become if I do this?" or "Is this action consistent with my acting at my best?"

Putting the Approaches Together

Each of the approaches helps us determine what standards of behavior can be considered
ethical. There are still problems to be solved, however.

The first problem is that we may not agree on the content of some of these specific
approaches. We may not all agree to the same set of human and civil rights.

We may not agree on what constitutes the common good. We may not even agree on
what is a good and what is a harm.

The second problem is that the different approaches may not all answer the question
"What is ethical?" in the same way. Nonetheless, each approach gives us important
information with which to determine what is ethical in a particular circumstance. And
much more often than not, the different approaches do lead to similar answers.

Making Decisions
Making good ethical decisions requires a trained sensitivity to ethical issues and a practiced
method for exploring the ethical aspects of a decision and weighing the considerations that
should impact our choice of a course of action. Having a method for ethical decision making
is absolutely essential. When practiced regularly, the method becomes so familiar that we
work through it automatically without consulting the specific steps.

The more novel and difficult the ethical choice we face, the more we need to rely on discussion
and dialogue with others about the dilemma. Only by careful exploration of the problem, aided
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by the insights and different perspectives of others, can we make good ethical choices in such
situations.

We have found the following framework for ethical decision making a useful method for
exploring ethical dilemmas and identifying ethical courses of action.

A  Framework  for  Ethical  Decision  Making  

Recognize an Ethical Issue

1. Could this decision or situation be damaging to

someone or to some group? Does this decision involve
a choice between a good and bad alternative, or
perhaps between two "goods" or between two "bads"?
2. Is this issue about more than what is legal or what is
most efficient? If so, how?

Get the Facts

3. What are the relevant facts of the case? What facts are not known? Can I learn more
about the situation? Do I know enough to make a decision?
4. What individuals and groups have an important stake in the outcome? Are some
concerns more important? Why?
5. What are the options for acting? Have all the relevant persons and groups been
consulted? Have I identified creative options?

Evaluate Alternative Actions

6. Evaluate the options by asking the following questions:

• Which option will produce the most good and do the least harm? (The Utilitarian
Approach)
• Which option best respects the rights of all who have a stake? (The Rights
Approach)
• Which option treats people equally or proportionately? (The Justice Approach)
• Which option best serves the community as a whole, not just some members? (The
Common Good Approach)
• Which option leads me to act as the sort of person I want to be? (The Virtue
Approach)

Make a Decision and Test It

7. Considering all these approaches, which option best addresses the situation?
8. If I told someone I respect - or told a television audience - which option I have chosen,
what would they say?

Act and Reflect on the Outcome

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9. How can my decision be implemented with the greatest care and attention to the
concerns of all stakeholders?
10. How did my decision turn out and what have I learned from this specific situation?

*This framework for thinking ethically is the product of dialogue and debate at the Markkula Center for
Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University. Primary contributors include Manuel Velasquez, Dennis Moberg,
Michael J. Meyer, Thomas Shanks, Margaret R. McLean, David DeCosse, Claire André, and Kirk O.
Hanson. It was last revised in May 2009. http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework.html
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Step  2—decide  the  case  study                

Please select ONE of the following Case Studies to complete

Case Study 1: Popcorn for the Study Group

John is a work-study student in the campus store. They discovered that if they provide free
bags of popcorn for store customers that customers will shop longer and buy more items. Part
of John’s job is to pop the popcorn in the movie popcorn machine and fill the give-away bags for
browsing customers. The store usually has a few bags of popped popcorn left over at closing
time that they throw away. Every Tuesday night John has a meeting with his study group. He
always brings them the leftover popcorn from the store that night. But his study group has
grown to become quite a large group. Because the group loves the popcorn as snack and
appreciates John’s contribution, John has begun popping a new batch of popcorn late in the
afternoon on Tuesdays to ensure that there will be a lot of leftover popcorn to take to his larger
study group. Nobody in the store notices or seems to care about the extra popcorn left over and
besides it’s very cheap to make.

Please use the “Framework for Ethical Decision Making” in the next section to identify ethical
issues in John’s situation.

Case Study 2: Pizza for Events

Sally is a student worker in the Activities office on campus. Part of her job is to confirm
schedules and food orders that are held in the student union building. Last summer Sally
worked for a large pizza restaurant chain located two blocks from campus. She was an
excellent employee and the manager said he might offer her a promotion next summer if things
worked out. Sally is interested in a hotel and restaurant management career and is excited
about the prospects of gaining management experience and training while in college. The
manager said that he would give all student groups10% off any pizzas if they purchased it from
his restaurant. Although food for all campus events is supposed to go through catering
services, they don’t often cite student groups who bring in their own food in the evenings.
Whenever Sally sees a student group make an event reservation through the Activities office
she offers the group the 10% discount her former boss guarantees. This makes everyone
happy. The students save money, Sally is happy to help out her former boss, and the
restaurant is happy for increased business.

Please use the “Framework for Ethical Decision Making” in the next section to identify ethical
issues in Sally’s situation.
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Step  3—Earn  Your  Stamp    

Application
1. After analyzing the case study write down some of the
ethical issues in this case in the space provided, or use a separate sheet of paper for
more comment space.
Module 7: Framework for Ethical Decision Making

What is the ethical

issue problem?

What are the facts?

What are some

alternatives using
the different
approaches:

Utilitarian,

Rights,

Justice,

Virtue,

Common Good

What decision would

you make and why?
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Passport  to  Professionalism    

Complete this reflection below to save and review with your boss.
Module 7: Ethical Behavior
A. Review the process described for B. What parts of the process you feel will
making ethical decisions. What parts be difficult for you?
of the process do you feel will be
naturally easy for you?

C. a. For the steps that you feel you’ll find difficult, devise some strategies for success.

b. What ethical issues are most likely to arise at your current job?
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