Plate Tectonics

History of Plate Tectonics

Throughout almost the whole of human history, most
people have imagined the continents to be fixed in
their present positions and the ocean floors to be
the oldest and most primitive parts of the Earth. In
the space of a few years during the early 1960s,
however, both of these assumptions were
overthrown in an intellectual revolution. It suddenly
became possible to prove that the continents are
drifting across the Earth's surface, that the ocean
floors are spreading, and that none of the oceanic
crust is more than about 200 million years old - less
than 5% of the age of the Earth (4600 million years).
 History of Plate Tectonics
Continental drift was not a new idea in the 1960s it
had been proposed by Antonio Snider of Paris in
1858. But it was not taken seriously until, in 1915,
the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener (1890-
1930) wrote a book drawing together all the
scientific evidence for drift then available.
 History of Plate Tectonics
Many of Wegener's arguments are still valid today.
He pointed out, for example, that the rocks along
the west coast of Africa are very similar to those
along the east coast of South America, suggesting
that the two continents were once one. He also
noted that certain identical fossils are found on
continents now separated by thousands of
kilometers of ocean. The animals concerned could
never have swum so far; so the continents involved
must once have been joined.
 History of Plate Tectonics
Wegener proposed that about 200 million years ago
there was just one super continent, which he named
Pangaea. Subsequently, Pangaea split into smaller
landmasses, which then drifted to their present
positions (and are still drifting, at rates of a few
centimeters a year). But for over 40 years
Wegener's arguments were rejected by most
geologists, who could not envisage how solid
continents could possibly plough their way through
equally solid ocean floor.
 History of Plate Tectonics
The Revolution

In the early 1960s scientists managed to prove

continental drift by making use of the weak
magnetism that many rocks contain (see box).
Once this had been done, it was no longer
possible to use the problem of how drift occurs as
a reason for rejecting it. A solution must exist and
had to be found. It was not long in coming.
Scientists soon realized that continents did not
have to plough through ocean floors, because the
ocean floors are moving too. Indeed, it is the
spreading oceanic lithosphere that pushes the
continents along.
 History of Plate Tectonics
The secret lay in the huge ocean-floor
mountain ranges, known as oceanic
ridges, discovered by oceanographers
during the 1950s. These are now known
to be the sites at which magma rises
from the asthenosphere below cools, and
solidifies to form new oceanic
lithosphere. Once solid, the lava moves
away on each side of the ridge, and more
magma rises into the gap to take its
place. Oceanic lithosphere is thus being
created continuously at oceanic ridges.
 History of Plate Tectonics
But unless the Earth is expanding,
lithosphere must also be destroyed at
the same rate as it is created. This
happens at subduction zones, most but
not all of which lie around the margins of
the Pacific. As the spreading oceanic
lithosphere reaches the edges of the
Pacific continents, it is forced down into
the Earth's interior where it gradually
melts and loses its identity. All the ocean
floor is recycled in this way in less than
about 200 million years.
 PLATE BOUNDARIES

CONSTRUCTIVE PLATE DESTRUCTIVE PLATE CONSERVATIVE PLATE

BOUNDARY( DIVERGEN BOUNDARY BOUNDARY
T) (CONVERGENT) (TRANSFORM FAULT)
CONSTRUCTIVE OR DIVERGENT PLATE
BOUNDARY

This is where two plates move away from each

other. Along these boundaries, earthquakes are
common and magma (molten rock) rises from the
Earth's mantle to the surface, solidifying to create
new oceanic crust. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an
example of divergent plate boundaries.
DESTRUCTIVE OR CONVERGENT PLATE
BOUNDARY
This occurs when plates move towards each other and
collide. When a continental plate meets an oceanic plate,
the thinner, denser, and more flexible oceanic plate sinks
beneath the thicker, more rigid continental plate. This is
called subduction. Subduction causes deep ocean trenches
to form, such as the one along the west coast of South
America. Sometimes the molten rock rises to the surface,
through the continent, forming a line of volcanoes. Another
form of convergent boundary is a collision where two
continental plates meet head-on. Since neither plate is
stronger than the other, they crumple and are pushed up.
This can lead to the formation of huge, high mountain
ranges such as the Himalayas.
CONSERVATIVE OR TRANSFORM FAULT PLATE
BOUNDARY

A transform boundary occurs when two tectonic

plates move past one another. Shear stress
operates at transform boundaries, which involves
sliding motion.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
Alfred Lothar Wegener was a German
climatologist, geologist, geophysicist,
meteorologist, and polar researcher. During
his lifetime he was primarily known for his
achievements in meteorology and as a
pioneer of polar research, but today he is
most remembered as the originator of
“Continental Drift Theory”- a hypothesis
suggesting in 1912 that the continents are
slowly drifting around the earth.
 Evidence on Wegener`s Continental Drift
Theory
Wegener observed that the
coastlines of continents are exactly
fit together like the pieces of
puzzle.

THE APPARENT FITS OF

CONTINENT
 Wegener proposed that the organisms
had lived side by side, but that the lands had
moved apart after they were dead and
fossilized. He suggested that the organisms
would not have been able to travel across the
oceans.

Example: Mesosaurus was a swimming reptile but

could only swim in fresh water.

FOSSIL AND OTHER

EVIDENCE OF LIFE
 Identical rocks, of the same type and age, are found
on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Wegener said
the rocks had formed side-by-side and that the land
had since moved apart.

Mountain ranges with the same rock types,

structures, and ages are now on opposite sides of
the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the eastern
United States and Canada, for example, are just like
mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland,
Great Britain, and Norway. Wegener concluded that
ROCK AND MOUNTAIN they formed as a single mountain range that was
CORRELATION separated as the continents drifted.
 Wegener found out that the coal has been
found in cold region and glacial evidence
has found in warm regions.

PALEOCLIMATE DATA
EARTHQUAKES
EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake is a sudden release of
energy in the Earth's crust or upper
mantle. As the planet's tectonic plates
jostle against each other and become
distorted, tremendous strain builds
up - and from time to time the strain
energy is discharged in zones where
the rocks are weakest. The result is a
sudden violent shock that can have
highly destructive effects on the
Earth's surface nearby.
EARTHQUAKES
The damaging effects of an earthquake are due to
the vibrations (seismic waves)emitted by the
shock. For a brief moment the waves shake the
ground close to the earthquake, frequently
producing permanent effects. Earthquakes may
cause fissures to appear in the ground, produce
changes in the level and tilt of the ground surface,
divert rivers and streams, and trigger landslides
and avalanches. Undersea earthquakes may also
give rise to tsunami-huge sea waves that can
travel across the oceans for thousands of
kilometers, causing devastation when they hit
land.
Where earthquakes occur
Most earthquakes take place along the boundaries of the tectonic plates - along oceanic ridges,
transform faults and subduction zones-because this is where the plates interact most intensely, and
hence where distortion and strain build-up are greatest. The point at which an earthquake occurs is
called the focus, or hypocenter. The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus is called the
epicenter. A world map of epicenters is largely a map of the Earth's plate boundaries.
Where earthquakes occur
All earthquake foci lie within about the upper 700 km (435 mi) of the Earth. Within this range,
earthquakes are classified as shallow (focal depths of 0-70 km /0-43 mi), intermediate (70-300
km/43-186 mi), or deep (below 300 km / 186 mi). There are about three times as many intermediate
earthquakes as there are deep ones, and about ten times as many shallow ones. It is the shallow
shocks that produce most of the damage at the Earth's surface, for the obvious reason that they are
closer to it. Collectively, the shallow earthquakes also release the most energy-about 75% of the
total, compared to 3%for deep earthquakes.

Earthquake foci at the various depths are not distributed uniformly along the plate boundaries.
Almost all the deep earth quakes, about 90% of the intermediate ones and about 75% of the shallow
ones occur along the subduction zones around the Pacific Ocean. Oceanic ridges and transform
faults, on the other hand, are generally. the sites of shallower and smaller events.
Measuring Earthquakes
The size of an earthquake is specified by its magnitude, sometimes called the Richter magnitude
after the American seismologist, Charles Richter, who devised the scale in the 1930s. Magnitude is
actually a measure of the size (amplitude) of the waves emitted by the earthquake. However, the
magnitude scale is logarithmic. This means that each step up the scale represents a ten-fold increase
in the amplitude of the emitted waves. Thus the waves from a magnitude-7 earthquake are 10 times
bigger than those from a magnitude-6 shock, 100 times bigger than those from a magnitude-5 event,
and so on.
Measuring Earthquakes
Magnitude can also be regarded as a measure of the energy released by an earthquake,
because energy is related to wave size. The relationship is such that each division on the
'magnitude scale represents an approximately thirty-fold difference in energy. Thus a
magnitude-7 earthquake releases about 30 times more energy than a magnitude-6 shock
and about 30 × 30 = 900 times more energy than a magnitude-5 event. This explains why
most of the energy released by earthquakes comes from the very few big shocks that
occur each year rather than from the million or so smaller earthquakes.
Measuring Earthquakes
In principle, there is no upper limit to the possible magnitude of earthquakes, although in
practice there are no shocks with magnitudes greater than about 9. On the basis of
magnitude, earthquakes are classified as great (magnitude above 7.5),major (6.5-7.5),
large (5.5-6.5), moderate(4.5-5.5) or small (below 4.5). Magnitudes may be determined
from the amplitudes of either body waves or surface waves, whichever happen to be the
most convenient.
EARTHQUAKE
S
EARTHQUAKE
S
What is
seismometer?
A seismometer is the internal part of the seismograph, which may be a pendulum
or a mass mounted on a spring; however, it is often used synonymously with
"seismograph". Seismographs are instruments used to record the motion of the
ground during an earthquake.
A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to detect and record
seismic waves. Seismic waves are propagating vibrations that carry energy from
the source of an earthquake outward in all directions. They travel through the
interior of the Earth and can be measured with sensitive detectors called
seismographs. Scientists have seismographs set up all over the world to track
the movement of the Earth's crust.
A seismogram is a graph output by a seismograph. It is a record of the ground
motion at a measuring station as a function of time. Seismograms typically
record motions in three cartesian axes, with the z axis perpendicular to the
Earth's surface and the x- and y- axes parallel to the surface
The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
The effect of an earthquake on the Earth's surface is called the
intensity. The intensity scale consists of a series of certain key
responses such as people awakening, movement of furniture,
damage to chimneys, and finally - total destruction. Although
numerousintensity scales have been developed over the last several
hundred years to evaluate the effects of earthquakes, the one
currently used in the United States is the Modified Mercalli (MM)
Intensity Scale. It was developed in 1931 by the American
seismologists Harry Wood and Frank Neumann
This scale, composed of increasing levels of intensity that range from
imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction, is designated by Roman
numerals. It does not have a mathematical basis; instead it is an arbitrary
ranking based on observed effects.
The Modified Mercalli Intensity value assigned to a specific site after an
earthquake has a more meaningful measure of severity to the nonscientist
than the magnitude because intensity refers to the effects actually
experienced at that place.

The lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in
which the earthquake is felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are
based on observed structural damage. Structural engineers usually
contribute information for assigning intensity values of VIII or above.
Magnitude and Intensity

Magnitude and Intensity measure different

characteristics of earthquakes. Magnitude measures the
energy released at the source of the earthquake.
Magnitude is determined from measurements on
seismographs. Intensity measures the strength of
shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain
location. Intensity is determined from effects on people,
human structures, and the natural environment.
Types of
Seismic Waves
Body Waves and
Surface Waves
 Body Waves
Body waves are of two types:
compressional or primary (P) waves and
shear or secondary (S) waves. P- and S-
waves are called "body waves" because
they can travel through the interior of a
body such as the Earth's inner layers,
from the focus of an earthquake to
distant points on the surface. The Earth's
molten core can only be traveled through
by compressional waves.
 P-waves
P waves, or Primary waves, are the first
waves to arrive at a seismograph. P waves
are the fastest seismic waves and can move
through solid, liquid, or gas. They leave
behind a trail of compressions and
rarefactions on the medium they move
through. P waves are also called pressure
waves for this reason. Certain animals, such
as dogs, can feel the P waves much before
an earthquake hits the crust (surface waves
arrive). Humans can only feel the
ramifications it has on the crust.
 S-waves

S waves, or secondary waves, are

the second waves to arrive during
an earthquake. They are much
slower than P waves and can travel
only through solids. It is after
studying the trajectory of S waves
through the layers of earth,
scientists were able to conclude that
the earth’s outer core is liquid.
 Body Waves

P waves travel fastest, at speeds between 4-8 km/sec (14,000-28,000

km/h) in the Earth's crust. S-waves travel more slowly, usually at 2.5-4
km/sec (9,000-14,000 km/h). Sound waves are usually called P-waves
and are heard but not often felt. Except in the most powerful
earthquakes they generally do not cause much damage. P-waves
shake the ground in the direction they are propagating, while S-waves
shake perpendicularly or transverse to the direction of propagation
(i.e. they displace material at right angles to their path).
 Surface Waves

Surface waves, in contrast to body

waves can only move along the
surface. They arrive after the main P
and S waves and are confined to the
outer layers of the Earth. They
cause the most surface destruction.
Earthquake surface waves are
divided into two different categories:
Love and Rayleigh.
 Love Waves

Love waves have a particle motion,

which, like the S-wave, is transverse
to the direction of propagation but
with no vertical motion. Their side-
to-side motion (like a snake
wriggling) causes the ground to twist
from side to side, that's why Love
waves cause the most damage to
structure
 Rayleigh Waves

Rayleigh waves create a rolling, up

and down motion with an elliptical
and retrograde particle motion
confined to the vertical plane in the
direction of propagation.
 Rayleigh Waves
There is a visible difference
between Love Waves and Rayleigh
Waves. Rayleigh Waves are the waves
that are travelling directly upwards from
a solid. It has a circular motion and
independent speed of wavelength. It
might transverse horizontally or vertically
in ellipses. While Love Waves are the
waves that are not having any vertical
pattern. It just moves from side to
another in a horizaontal motion.