Mann Stats 8e PPT Ch04 (Main)

CHAPTER 4
PROBABILITY
Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 8/E

Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Opening Example

EXPERIMENT, OUTCOMES, AND SAMPLE SPACE
 Definition
 An experiment is a process that, when performed, results
in one and only one of many observations. These
observations are called the outcomes of the experiment.
The collection of all outcomes for an experiment is called a
sample space.

Table 4.1 Examples of Experiments, Outcomes, and
Sample Spaces

Example 4-1
 Draw the Venn and tree diagrams for the experiment of
tossing a coin once.

Figure 4.1 (a) Venn Diagram and (b) tree diagram for
one toss of a coin.

Example 4-2
 Draw the Venn and tree diagrams for the experiment of
tossing a coin twice.

Figure 4.2 (a) Venn diagram and (b) tree diagram for
two tosses of a coin.

Example 4-3
 Suppose we randomly select two workers from a company and
observe whether the worker selected each time is a man or a
woman. Write all the outcomes for this experiment. Draw the
Venn and tree diagrams for this experiment.

Figure 4.3 (a) Venn diagram and (b) tree diagram for
selecting two workers.

Simple and Compound Events
 Definition
 An event is a collection of one or more of the outcomes of
an experiment.

 Definition
 An event that includes one and only one of the (final)
outcomes for an experiment is called a simple event and
is denoted by Ei.

Example 4-4
 Reconsider Example 4-3 on selecting two workers from a
company and observing whether the worker selected each time
is a man or a woman. Each of the final four outcomes (MM,
MW, WM, and WW) for this experiment is a simple event. These
four events can be denoted by E1, E2, E3, and E4, respectively.
Thus,
 E1 = (MM), E2 = (MW), E3 = (WM), and E4 = (WW)

 Definition
 A compound event is a collection of more than one outcome
for an experiment.

Example 4-5
 Reconsider Example 4-3 on selecting two workers from a
company and observing whether the worker selected each
time is a man or a woman. Let A be the event that at most
one man is selected. Event A will occur if either no man or
one man is selected. Hence, the event A is given by

A = {MW, WM, WW}
 Because event A contains more than one outcome, it is a

compound event. The Venn diagram in Figure 4.4 gives a
graphic presentation of compound event A.

Figure 4.4 Venn diagram for event A.

Example 4-6
 In a group of a people, some are in favor of genetic
engineering and others are against it. Two persons are
selected at random from this group and asked whether they
are in favor of or against genetic engineering. How many
distinct outcomes are possible? Draw a Venn diagram and a
tree diagram for this experiment. List all the outcomes
included in each of the following events and state whether
they are simple or compound events.
(a) Both persons are in favor of the genetic engineering.

(b) At most one person is against genetic engineering.
(c) Exactly one person is in favor of genetic engineering.

Example 4-6: Solution
 Let
 F = a person is in favor of genetic engineering
 A = a person is against genetic engineering
 FF = both persons are in favor of genetic engineering
 FA = the first person is in favor and the second is
against
 AF = the first is against and the second is in favor
 AA = both persons are against genetic engineering

Figure 4.5 Venn and tree diagrams.

a) Both persons are in favor of genetic engineering = {FF}
Because this event includes only one of the final four
outcomes, it is a simple event.
b) At most one person is against genetic engineering = {FF,
FA, AF}
Because this event includes more than one outcome, it is
a compound event.
c) Exactly one person is in favor of genetic engineering =
{FA, AF}
It is a compound event.

CALCULATING PROBABLITY
 Definition
 Probability is a numerical measure of the likelihood that a
specific event will occur.

Two Properties of Probability
 The probability of an event always lies in the range 0 to 1.
 The sum of the probabilities of all simple events (or final

outcomes) for an experiment, denoted by ΣP(Ei), is
always 1.

Three Conceptual Approaches to Probability
 Classical Probability
 Definition
 Two or more outcomes (or events) that have the same
probability of occurrence are said to be equally likely
outcomes (or events).

Classical Probability
Classical Probability Rule to Find Probability
1
P ( Ei ) 
Total number of outcomes for the experiment
Number of outcomes favorable to A

P ( A) 
Total number of outcomes for the experiment

Example 4-7
 Find the probability of obtaining a head and the probability of
obtaining a tail for one toss of a coin.

1 1
P(head)    .50
Total number of outcomes 2
Similarly,
1
P ( tail)   .50
2

Example 4-8
 Find the probability of obtaining an even number in one roll of
a die.

 A = {2, 4, 6}. If any one of these three numbers is
obtained, event A is said to occur. Hence,
Number of outcomes included in A 3

P(head)    .50
Total number of outcomes 6

Example 4-9
 In a group of 500 women, 120 have played golf at least once.
Suppose one of these 500 women is randomly selected. What
is the probability that she has played golf at least once?

 One hundred twenty of these 500 outcomes are included in
the event that the selected woman has played golf at least
once. Hence,
120
P (selected woman has played golf at least once)   .24
500

 Relative Frequency Concept of Probability
 Using Relative Frequency as an Approximation of

Probability
 If an experiment is repeated n times and an event A is
observed f times, then, according to the relative frequency
concept of probability,
f
P ( A) 
n

Example 4-10
 Ten of the 500 randomly selected cars manufactured at a
certain auto factory are found to be lemons. Assuming that
the lemons are manufactured randomly, what is the
probability that the next car manufactured at this auto factory
is a lemon?

 Let n denote the total number of cars in the sample and f the
number of lemons in n. Then,
 n = 500 and f = 10
 Using the relative frequency concept of probability, we
obtain
f 10
P (next car is a lemon)    .02
n 500

Table 4.2 Frequency and Relative Frequency
Distributions for the Sample of Cars

Law of Large Numbers
 Definition
 Law of Large Numbers
 If an experiment is repeated again and again, the probability
of an event obtained from the relative frequency approaches
the actual or theoretical probability.

Example 4-11
 Allison wants to determine the probability that a randomly
selected family from New York State owns a home. How can
she determine this probability?

 There are two outcomes for a randomly selected family from
New York State: “This family owns a home” and “This family
does not own a home.” These two events are not equally
likely. Hence, the classical probability rule cannot be
applied. However, we can repeat this experiment again and
again. Hence, we will use the relative frequency approach
to probability.

 Subjective Probability
 Definition
 Subjective probability is the probability assigned to an
event based on subjective judgment, experience,
information, and belief.

MARGINAL PROBABILITY, CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY,
AND RELATED PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
Suppose all 100 employees of a company were asked
whether they are in favor of or against paying high
salaries to CEOs of U.S. companies. Table 4.3 gives a two
way classification of the responses of these 100
employees.

Table 4.3 Two-Way Classification of Employee
Responses

Table 4.4 Two-Way Classification of Employee
Responses with Totals

 Definition
 Marginal probability is the probability of a single event
without consideration of any other event. Marginal probability
is also called simple probability.

Table 4.5 Listing the Marginal Probabilities


 Definition
 Conditional probability is the probability that an event will
occur given that another has already occurred. If A and B are
two events, then the conditional probability A given B is
written as
 P ( A | B )
 and read as “the probability of A given that B has already
occurred.”

Example 4-12
 Compute the conditional probability P (in favor | male) for
the data on 100 employees given in Table 4.4.

Number of males who are in favor 15

P (in favor | male)    .25
Total number of males 60

Figure 4.6 Tree Diagram.

Example 4-13
 For the data of Table 4.4, calculate the conditional probability
that a randomly selected employee is a female given that this
employee is in favor of paying high salaries to CEOs.

Number of females who are in favor

P (female | in favor) 
Total number of employees who are in favor
4
  .2105
19

Figure 4.7 Tree diagram.

Case Study 4-1 Do You Worry About Your Weight?

 Definition
 Events that cannot occur together are said to be mutually
exclusive events.

Example 4-14
 Consider the following events for one roll of a die:
 A= an even number is observed= {2, 4, 6}
 B= an odd number is observed= {1, 3, 5}
 C= a number less than 5 is observed= {1, 2, 3, 4}
 Are events A and B mutually exclusive? Are events A and C
mutually exclusive?


Example 4-15
 Consider the following two events for a randomly selected adult:
 Y = this adult has shopped on the Internet at least once
 N = this adult has never shopped on the Internet
 Are events Y and N mutually exclusive?

As we can observe from the definitions of events Y and N
and from Figure 4.10, events Y and N have no common
outcome. Hence, these two events are mutually exclusive.

 Definition
 Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence of
one does not change the probability of the occurrence of the
other. In other words, A and B are independent events if

 either P(A | B) = P(A) or P(B | A) = P(B)

Example 4-16
 Refer to the information on 100 employees given in Table 4.4
in Section 4.4. Are events “female (F)” and “in favor (A)”
independent?

 Events F and A will be independent if
 P (F) = P (F | A)

Otherwise they will be dependent.
Using the information given in Table 4.4, we compute the
following two probabilities:

P (F) = 40/100 = .40 and

P (F | A) = 4/19 = .2105
 Because these two probabilities are not equal, the two events
are dependent.

Example 4-17
 A box contains a total of 100 DVDs that were manufactured
on two machines. Of them, 60 were manufactured on
Machine I. Of the total DVDs, 15 are defective. Of the 60
DVDs that were manufactured on Machine I, 9 are defective.
Let D be the event that a randomly selected DVD is defective,
and let A be the event that a randomly selected DVD was
manufactured on Machine I. Are events D and A
independent?

 From the given information,
 P (D) = 15/100 = .15 and
P (D | A) = 9/60 = .15

Hence,
P (D) = P (D | A)
 Consequently, the two events, D and A, are independent.

Table 4.6 Two-Way Classification Table

 Definition
 The complement of event A, denoted by Ā and read as “A
bar” or “A complement,” is the event that includes all the
outcomes for an experiment that are not in A.

Figure 4.11 Venn diagram of two complementary
events.

Example 4-18
 In a group of 2000 taxpayers, 400 have been audited by the
IRS at least once. If one taxpayer is randomly selected from
this group, what are the two complementary events for this
experiment, and what are their probabilities?

The two complementary events for this experiment are
 A = the selected taxpayer has been audited by the IRS
at least once
 Ā = the selected taxpayer has never been audited by the
IRS
The probabilities of the complementary events are
P (A) = 400/2000 = .20 and
P (Ā) = 1600/2000 = .80

Figure 4.12 Venn diagram.

Example 4-19
 In a group of 5000 adults, 3500 are in favor of stricter gun
control laws, 1200 are against such laws, and 300 have no
opinion. One adult is randomly selected from this group. Let A
be the event that this adult is in favor of stricter gun control
laws. What is the complementary event of A? What are the
probabilities of the two events?

The two complementary events for this experiment are
 A = the selected adult is in favor of stricter gun control
laws
 Ā = the selected adult either is against such laws or has
no opinion
The probabilities of the complementary events are
P (A) = 3500/5000 = .70 and
P (Ā) = 1500/5000 = .30

Figure 4.13 Venn diagram.

INTERSECTION OF EVENTS AND THE
MULTIPLICATION RULE
 Intersection of Events
 Definition
 Let A and B be two events defined in a sample space. The
intersection of A and B represents the collection of all
outcomes that are common to both A and B and is denoted
by
 A and B

Figure 4.14 Intersection of events A and B.

MULTIPLICATION RULE
 Multiplication Rule
 Definition
 The probability of the intersection of two events is called their
joint probability. It is written as

 P(A and B)

MULTIPLICATION RULE
 Multiplication Rule to Find Joint Probability
 The probability of the intersection of two events A and B is
 P(A and B) = P(A) P(B |A) = P(B) P(A |B)

Example 4-20
 Table 4.7 gives the classification of all employees of a company
given by gender and college degree.
 If one of these employees is selected at random for

membership on the employee-management committee, what is
the probability that this employee is a female and a college
graduate?
We are to calculate the probability of the intersection of the
events F and G.
P(F and G) = P(F) P(G |F)

P(F) = 13/40
P(G |F) = 4/13
P(F and G) = P(F) P(G |F)
= (13/40)(4/13) = .100

Figure 4.15 Intersection of events F and G.

Figure 4.16 Tree diagram for joint probabilities.

Example 4-21
 A box contains 20 DVDs, 4 of which are defective. If two DVDs
are selected at random (without replacement) from this box,
what is the probability that both are defective?

 Let us define the following events for this experiment:
G1 = event that the first DVD selected is good
D1 = event that the first DVD selected is defective
G2 = event that the second DVD selected is good
D2 = event that the second DVD selected is defective
We are to calculate the joint probability of D1 and D2,

P(D1 and D2) = P(D1) P(D2 |D1)
P(D1) = 4/20
P(D2 |D1) = 3/19
P(D1 and D2) = (4/20)(3/19) = .0316

Figure 4.17 Selecting two DVDs.

MULTIPLICATION RULE
 Calculating Conditional Probability
 If A and B are two events, then,
P ( A and B ) P( A and B )
P( B | A)  and P ( A | B) 
P ( A) P( B)
 given that P (A ) ≠ 0 and P (B ) ≠ 0.

Example 4-22
 The probability that a randomly selected student from a
college is a senior is .20, and the joint probability that the
student is a computer science major and a senior is .03. Find
the conditional probability that a student selected at random is
a computer science major given that the student is a senior.

Let us define the following two events:
 A = the student selected is a senior
 B = the student selected is a computer science major
From the given information,

P(A) = .20 and P(A and B) = .03
Hence,
P (B | A) = P(A and B) / P(A) = .03 / .20 = .15

MULTIPLICATION RULE FOR INDEPENDENT
EVENTS
 Multiplication Rule to Calculate the Probability of Independent
Events
 The probability of the intersection of two independent events A

and B is
 P(A and B) = P(A) P(B)

Example 4-23
 An office building has two fire detectors. The probability is .02
that any fire detector of this type will fail to go off during a
fire. Find the probability that both of these fire detectors will
fail to go off in case of a fire.

We define the following two events:
A = the first fire detector fails to go off during a fire

B = the second fire detector fails to go off during a fire
Then, the joint probability of A and B is

P(A and B) = P(A) P(B) = (.02)(.02) = .0004

Example 4-24
 The probability that a patient is allergic to penicillin is .20.
Suppose this drug is administered to three patients.
a) Find the probability that all three of them are allergic to it.
b) Find the probability that at least one of the them is not
allergic to it.

a) Let A, B, and C denote the events the first, second, and
third patients, respectively, are allergic to penicillin.
Hence,
P (A and B and C) = P(A) P(B) P(C)

= (.20) (.20) (.20) = .008

b) Let us define the following events:
G = all three patients are allergic
H = at least one patient is not allergic
P(G) = P(A and B and C) = .008
Therefore, using the complementary event rule, we obtain

P(H) = 1 – P(G) = 1 - .008 = .992

Figure 4.18 Tree diagram for joint probabilities.

MULTIPLICATION RULE FOR INDEPENDENT
EVENTS
 Joint Probability of Mutually Exclusive Events
 The joint probability of two mutually exclusive events is

always zero. If A and B are two mutually exclusive events,
then
 P(A and B) = 0

Example 4-25
 Consider the following two events for an application filed by a
person to obtain a car loan:
 A = event that the loan application is approved
 R = event that the loan application is rejected
 What is the joint probability of A and R?

 The two events A and R are mutually exclusive. Either the
loan application will be approved or it will be rejected. Hence,
P(A and R) = 0

UNION OF EVENTS AND THE ADDITION RULE
 Definition
 Let A and B be two events defined in a sample space. The
union of events A and B is the collection of all outcomes that
belong to either A or B or to both A and B and is denoted by
 A or B

Example 4-26
 A senior citizen center has 300 members. Of them, 140 are
male, 210 take at least one medicine on a permanent basis,
and 95 are male and take at least one medicine on a
permanent basis. Describe the union of the events “male”
and “take at least one medicine on a permanent basis.”

 Let us define the following events:
M = a senior citizen is a male
F = a senior citizen is a female
A = a senior citizen takes at least one medicine
B = a senior citizen does not take any medicine
 The union of the events “male” and “take at least one

medicine” includes those senior citizens who are either male
or take at least one medicine or both. The number of such
senior citizens is
140 + 210 – 95 = 255

Table 4.8

Figure 4.19 Union of events M and A.

UNION OF EVENTS AND THE ADDITION RULE
 Addition Rule
 Addition Rule to Find the Probability of Union of Events

 The portability of the union of two events A and B is
 P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)

Example 4-27
 A university president has proposed that all students must
take a course in ethics as a requirement for graduation. Three
hundred faculty members and students from this university
were asked about their opinion on this issue. Table 4.9 gives
a two-way classification of the responses of these faculty
members and students.
 Find the probability that one person selected at random from

these 300 persons is a faculty member or is in favor of this
proposal.

Table 4.9 Two-Way Classification of Responses

Let us define the following events:
A = the person selected is a faculty member
B = the person selected is in favor of the proposal
From the information in the Table 4.9,

P(A) = 70/300 = .2333
P(B) = 135/300 = .4500
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B | A) = (70/300)(45/70) = .1500
Using the addition rule, we obtain

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
= .2333 + .4500 – .1500 = .5333

Example 4-28
 In a group of 2500 persons, 1400 are female, 600 are
vegetarian, and 400 are female and vegetarian. What is the
probability that a randomly selected person from this group is
a male or vegetarian?

 Let us define the following events:
 F = the randomly selected person is a female
 M = the randomly selected person is a male
 V = the randomly selected person is a vegetarian
 N = the randomly selected person is a non-vegetarian.
P( M or V )  P ( M )  P (V )  P( M and V )
1100 600 200
  
2500 2500 2500
 .44  .24  .08  .60

Table 4.10 Two-Way Classification Table

Addition Rule for Mutually Exclusive Events
 Addition Rule to Find the Probability of the Union of
Mutually Exclusive Events
 The probability of the union of two mutually exclusive

events A and B is
 P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Example 4-29
 A university president has proposed that all students must
take a course in ethics as a requirement for graduation.
Three hundred faculty members and students from this
university were asked about their opinion on this issue. The
following table, reproduced from Table 4.9 in Example 4-30,
gives a two-way classification of the responses of these
faculty members and students.
 What is the probability that a randomly selected person from
these 300 faculty members and students is in favor of the
proposal or is neutral?


Let us define the following events:
F = the person selected is in favor of the proposal
N = the person selected is neutral
From the given information,

P(F) = 135/300 = .4500
P(N) = 40/300 = .1333
Hence,
P(F or N) = P(F) + P(N) = .4500 + .1333 = .5833

Figure 4.20 Venn diagram of mutually exclusive events.

Example 4-30
 Consider the experiment of rolling a die twice. Find the
probability that the sum of the numbers obtained on two rolls
is 5, 7, or 10.

Table 4.11 Two Rolls of a Die

P(sum is 5 or 7 or 10)
= P(sum is 5) + P(sum is 7) + P(sum is 10)
= 4/36 + 6/36 + 3/36 = 13/36 = .3611

Example 4-31
The probability that a person is in favor of genetic
engineering is .55 and that a person is against it is .45. Two
persons are randomly selected, and it is observed whether
they favor or oppose genetic engineering.
a) Draw a tree diagram for this experiment
b) Find the probability that at least one of the two persons
favors genetic engineering.

a) Let
F = a person is in favor of genetic engineering
A = a person is against genetic engineering
This experiment has four outcomes. The tree diagram in

Figure 4.21 shows these four outcomes and their
probabilities.

Figure 4.21 Tree diagram.

b) P(at least one person favors)
= P(FF or FA or AF)
= P(FF) + P(FA) + P(AF)
= .3025 + .2475 + .2475 = .7975

COUNTING RULE, FACTORIALS, COMBINATIONS, AND
PERMUTATIONS
 Counting Rule to Find Total Outcomes
 If an experiment consists of three steps and if the first step can

result in m outcomes, the second step in n outcomes, and the
third in k outcomes, then
 Total outcomes for the experiment = m · n · k

Example 4-32
 Suppose we toss a coin three times. This experiment has three
steps: the first toss, the second toss, and the third toss. Each
step has two outcomes: a head and a tail. Thus,
 Total outcomes for three tosses of a coin = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8
 The eight outcomes for this experiment are


 HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, and TTT

Example 4-33
 A prospective car buyer can choose between a fixed and a
variable interest rate and can also choose a payment period of
36 months, 48 months, or 60 months. How many total
outcomes are possible?

There are two outcomes (a fixed or a variable interest rate)
for the first step and three outcomes (a payment period of
36 months, 48 months, or 60 months) for the second step.
Hence,
Total outcomes = 2 x 3 = 6

Example 4-34
A National Football League team will play 16 games during a
regular season. Each game can result in one of three
outcomes: a win, a loss, or a tie. The total possible outcomes
for 16 games are calculated as follows:
Total outcomes = 3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3 ·3·3·3·3

= 316 = 43,046,721
One of the 43,046,721 possible outcomes is all 16 wins.

PERMUTATIONS
 Factorials
 Definition
 The symbol n!, read as “n factorial,” represents the product of
all the integers from n to 1. In other words,
 n! = n(n - 1)(n – 2)(n – 3) · · · 3 · 2 · 1
 By definition,
 0! = 1

Example 4-35
Evaluate 7!
7! = 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 5040

Example 4-36
Evaluate 10!
10! = 10 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
= 3,628,800

Example 4-37
Evaluate (12-4)!
(12-4)! = 8! = 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
= 40,320

Example 4-38
Evaluate (5-5)!
(5-5)! = 0! = 1
Note that 0! is always equal to 1.

PERMUTATIONS
 Combinations
 Definition
 Combinations give the number of ways x elements can be
selected from n elements. The notation used to denote the
total number of combinations is
n Cx
 which is read as “the number of combinations of n elements
selected x at a time.”

Combinations

Combinations
 Number of Combinations
 The number of combinations for selecting x from n distinct
elements is given by the formula
n!
n Cx 
x!(n  x)!
 where n!, x!, and (n-x)! are read as “n factorial,” “x
factorial,” “n minus x factorial,” respectively.

Example 4-39
 An ice cream parlor has six flavors of ice cream. Kristen wants
to buy two flavors of ice cream. If she randomly selects two
flavors out of six, how many combinations are there?

 n = total number of ice cream flavors = 6
 x = # of ice cream flavors to be selected = 2
6! 6! 6  5  4  3  2 1
6 C2     15
2!(6  2)! 2!4! 2 1  4  3  2 1
Thus, there are 15 ways for Kristen to select two ice cream
flavors out of six.

Example 4-40
 Three members of a jury will be randomly selected from
five people. How many different combinations are possible?

 n = 5 and x = 3
5! 5! 5  4  3  2  1 120
5 C3      10
3!(5  3)! 3!2! 3  2  1 2  1 6  2

Example 4-41
 Marv & Sons advertised to hire a financial analyst. The
company has received applications from 10 candidates who
seem to be equally qualified. The company manager has
decided to call only 3 of these candidates for an interview.
If she randomly selects 3 candidates from the 10, how
many total selections are possible?

 n = 10 and x = 3
10! 10! 3,628,800

10 C3     120
3!(10  3)! 3!7! (6)(5040)
 Thus, the company manager can select 3 applicants from

10 in 120 ways.

Case Study 4-2 Probability of Winning a Mega Millions
Lottery Jackpot

Permutations
 Permutations Notation
 Permutations give the total selections of x element from n
(different) elements in such a way that the order of selections
is important. The notation used to denote the permutations is
n Px
 which is read as “the number of permutations of selecting x
elements from n elements.” Permutations are also called
arrangements.

Permutations
 Permutations Formula

 The following formula is used to find the number of
permutations or arrangements of selecting x items out of n
items. Note that here, the n items should all be different.
n!
n Px 
(n  x )!

Example 4-42
 A club has 20 members. They are to select three office
holders – president, secretary, and treasurer – for next
year. They always select these office holders by drawing 3
names randomly from the names of all members. The first
person selected becomes the president, the second is the
secretary, and the third one takes over as treasurer. Thus,
the order in which 3 names are selected from the 20 names
is important. Find the total arrangements of 3 names from
these 20.

 n = total members of the club = 20
 x = number of names to be selected = 3
n! 20! 20!
n Px     6840
(n  x )! (20  3)! 17!
 Thus, there are 6840 permutations or arrangements for
selecting 3 names out of 20.


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CHAPTER 4

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 E1 = (MM), E2 = (MW), E3 = (WM), and E4 = (WW)

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 Because event A contains more than one outcome, it is a

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(a) Both persons are in favor of the genetic engineering.

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 The sum of the probabilities of all simple events (or final

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Number of outcomes favorable to A

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Number of outcomes included in A 3

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 Using Relative Frequency as an Approximation of

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Number of males who are in favor 15

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Number of females who are in favor