Hydrothermal ore deposits

Porphyries

Veins

VMS

SEDEX

MVT
 Porphyry deposits

Large deposits with low metal content,

usually associated with porphyritic intrusions
 Exploited mainly as open pits

Bingham Canyon, USA)

La Escondida (Chile)
Porphyry-type deposits:

Cu - Mo

Cu (-Au)

Mo (-W)

Sn (W-Sn)
Porphyry Cu deposits in time
Porphyry Cu deposits in space
Chilean porphyry Cu province
Porphyry Cu deposits
Relations of Mo deposits with intrusion
La Escondida (Chile)

Robb 2005
 Hydrothermal models

Ortomagmatic Convective

Magmatic intrusion generates an ascending Permeable country rocks are the primary source of
hydrothermal plume. Magmatic component fluids. Magmatic fluiuds may be only 5% of the
constitutes up to 95% of the hydrothermal fluid hydrothermal fluids.

Salinity is high, ranginng from 15 wt % to 60 wt %. Salinity is low, generally less than 15 wt %.

Multiple episodes of boiling, caused by repeated

Boiling is localised and of limited duration.
self-sealing and refracturing of the rocks.

Fluid temperatures may briefly reach 450°C, but

Fluid temperatures 400°C - 650°C, persisting over
quickly drop to around 250°C. The lower
long periods of time.
temperatures are then maintained for a long time.

Pervasive alteration and mineralisation form a Alteration and mineralisation are both pervasive
series of shells around the core of the intrusion. and fracture controlled.

Metals and sulphur are derived from the magma Metals and sulphur are scavenged from the
and are concentrated in residual fluids. enclosing rocks by convective ground waters.
Stages of brecciation
Stockwerk
 Model
Lowell-Gilbert

zonation

Ore minerals
forms

alterations
 Porphyry Mo
Climax, Co, USA

High-grade molybdenite (black) in quartz vein stockwork

  Porphyry W-Mo-Sn
Mount Pleasant, New Brunswick. Kanada

szer. 20 cm
Granite porphyry, chloritized and cut by quartz-fluorite- Chloritized breccia fragments of granite (dark green to
arsenopyrite-cassiterite veins, white quartz-topaz black) rimmed by quartz-topaz alteration (white) and
alteration occurs as selvages on the veins and cassiterite (brown); breccia matrix consists of
pervasively replaces the earlier chloritic alteration. The arsenopyrite (silver-grey) and fluorite (purple). The
polished slab is 20 cm wide.
polished slab is 20 cm wide
 .
Porphyry Cu system
Porphyry deposits (depth/type) and subduction

Robb 2005
 Characteristics of Porphyry Cu-Mo-Sn Deposits

Restricted to the Phanerozoic (mostly Mesozoic-Tertiary).

Closely associated with felsic intrusives

of qtz diorite to qtz monzonite composition.

Accompanied by characteristic alteration envelope:

potassic--> phyllic--> argillic--> propylitic.

Strong zoning in relationship to plate boundaries.

Cu > Mo > Sn moving inland from the plate margin.

Closely associated with island arc development

and subduction zones at convergent ocean-continent plate boundaries.

Ore occurs in a large, low-grade shell adjacent to the potassic zone.

Chalcopyrite and bornite most common minerals

with lesser molybdenite and cassiterite.

Isotopic evidence suggests shallow depths of magma generation

and significant groundwater interaction.
Cu cementation zone
 Vein deposits

The bodies that fill the cracks, usually of large horizontal and/or
vertical extent, mostly very narrow

Hypothermal (300 - 500 °C) Cu (-Au)

Mezothermal (200 - 300 °C) Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag-Au

Epithermal (50 - 200 °C) Au-Ag (-Hg)

Au
 Hypothermal Deposits
300 - 500 °C (high pressure; great depth)
1.Character of Veins - Marked development of replacement
textures. Gradational to pegmatitic ore deposits.
1.Diagnostic Ore Minerals
cassiterite SnO2 hematite Fe2O3
graphite C ilmenite FeTiO3
magnetite Fe3O4 molybdenite MoS2
marmatite (Zn,Fe)S pyrrhotite Fe1-x S
rutile TiO2 scheelite CaWO4
topaz Al2SiO4(OH,F) woiframite (FeMn)WO4

1.Other Common Metallic Minerals

arsenopyrite FeAsS bismuth Bi
bismuthinite Bi2S3 chalcopyrite CuFeS2
galena PbS gold Au
pyrite FeS2
1.Characteristic Gangue Minerals
feldspar pyroxene amphibole
micas spinel tourmaline
1.Wall Rock Alteration
Iron-magnesium Metasomatism - Characterized by the formation of
iron-rich biotite, tourmaline, andradite (garnet), amphibole and
pyroxene.
Sericitic - Exists but is less extensive.
Propylitization - Has been described, but is very rare
 Mesothermal Deposits
200 - 300 °C (moderate pressure; moderate depth)
1.Character of Veins - Fairly uniform tabular veins; many with
very smooth walls. Replacement is common, particularly of
carbonates, with lesser open space filling. Commonly show excellent
zoning both within a district and within an individual vein. Vein
systems can be quite extensive and large.
1.Diagnostic Ore Minerals
skutterrudite (Co,Ni) As3 smaltite (Co,Ni)As3
chloanthite (Ni ,Co) As3

1.Other Common Metallic Minerals - nearly all sulfides and

many sulfosalts and arsenides
arsenopyrite FeAsS bismuthinite Bi2S3
bournonite PbAuSbS3 bornite Cu5FeS4
chalcocite Cu2S chalcopyrite CuFeS2
covellite CuS cobaltite CoAsS
enargite Cu3AsS4 galena PbS
gold Au molybdenite MoS2
pyrite FeS2 niccolite NiAs
tetrahedrite Cu12Sb4S4 tennantite Cu12As4S4
sphalerite ZnS
1.Characteristic Gangue Minerals
quartz SiO2 ankerite Ca(MgFe)(CO3)2
calcite CaCO3 dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
fluorite CaF2 siderite FeCO3
1.Wall Rock Alteration - Dependent on the type of host rock
Sericitic - Develops in feldspathic rocks Feldspars alter to sericite
and mafic minerals to pyrite.
Dolomitization - Develops in carbonate rocks. Characterized by
ankerite and secondary calcite and dolomite.
Silicification - Also most commonly developed in carbonates, but
none-the-less also common in feldspathic rocks.
Jasperization - Characterized by the appearance of jasper, an iron-
rich variety of amorphous silica. Much less common.
 Epithermal Deposits
50 - 200 °C ( low pressure; shallow depth)
1.Character of Veins - Pronounced structural control of host rock.
Largely OPEN SPACE filling in cavities and vugs. Veins commonly show
crustiform "banded" structure, sometimes called comb structure.
1.Diagnostic Ore Minerals
cinnabar HgS acanthite Ag2S
stibnite Sb2S3 argentite Ag2S
chalcocite Cu2S proustite Ag3AsS3
Pyargyrite Ag3SbS3

1.Other Common Metallic Minerals -These deposits have

accounted for a large proportion of the United States production
of gold, silver and mercury.
arsenopyrite FeAsS bornite Cu4FeS5
bismuthinite Bi2S3 chalcopyrite CuFeS2
copper Cu electrum AuAg
galena PbS gold Au
marcasite FeS2 polybasite 9Ag2S-Sb2S3
orpiment As2S3 silver Ag
pyrite FeS2 realgar AsS
tetrahedrite Cu12Sb4S13 tennantite Cu12As4S13
1.Characteristic Gangue Minerals
adularia
alunite
calcite
dolomite

rhodochrosite
1.Wall Rock Alteration
Silicification - NOT necessarily associated directly with mineralizing solutions.
May represent an early stage of alteration to be followed by ore deposition and
propylitization.
Propylitization - Development of the assemblage chlorite plus calcite plus
epidote. Seems directly associated with ore mineralization. Rock takes on a
characteristic green color.
Sericitic - Formation of the assemblage sericite plus pyrite. Not always present
and usually of limited aerial extent.
Alunitization - Near surface alteration associated with descending meteoric
waters. Characterized by the formation of alunite.
GOLD Au Au Au Au Au Au Au……

Native gold (placer) - Yukon Territory

 Gold
is connected with:

pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite,

minor sulfides (classical "free gold")

Silver
is connected with:

galena, galena-sphalerite, chalcopyrite,

tetrahedrite and other copper sulphur salts Sb and As
 Disseminated gold deposits

• Au-Ag deposits
dispersed and stockwerk
in igneous intrusive bodies

• Au-Ag deposits
dispersed in lava flows and pyroclastic rocks

* Au deposits (Homestake-type)
in pyroclastic rocks and ferruginous formations

* Carlin-type Au (Ag, Hg) deposits

 Examples

Yilgarn Block, West Australia Kambalda, West Australia

Genetic models of Au concentration
in archaic hydrothermal deposits
 Au deposits (Homestake-type)
in pyroclastic rocks and ferruginous formations
Au deposit (Ag, Hg) – Carlin-type
Hypothermal Mezothermal deposit - Butte (Montana)
archaic vein Au
Bolivian tin belt (Ag, W, Zn)

Llallagua (Oruro)
Cerro Rico de Potosi
Epithermal Au-Ag (-Hg)

Types:

Vuggy quartz
HS (high-sulfidation)
acidic, oxidized fluids
(SO2 or SO4 - dominant S species)

LS (low-sulfidation)
adular-sericite
neutral-pH, reduced fluids
(H2S - dominant S species)
 Low sulfidation
High sulfidation (HS)
(LS) (Acid-sulfate)
(Adularia-sericite)

Open-space veins Disseminated ore dominant,

dominant, stockwork ore replacement ore common
Deposit common Stockwork ore minor, veins
form Disseminated and commonly subordinate
replacement ore minor

Veins, cavity filling

(bands, colloforms, Wallrock replacement, breccias,
Textures veins
druses), breccias

Pyrite, electrum, gold, Pyrite, enargite, chalcopyrite,

Ore sphalerite, galena tennantite, covellite, gold,
minerals (arsenopyrite) tellurides

Quartz, chalcedony, Quartz, alunite, barite, kaolinite,

Gangue calcite, adularia, illite, pyrophyllite
carbonates

Au, Ag, Zn, Pb (Cu, Sb, As, Cu, Au, Ag, As (Pb, Hg, Sb, Te, Sn,
Metals
Hg, Se) Mo, Bi)
 Epithermal deposits
LS HS

H e d e n q u i s t & L o w e n s t e r n (1994)
Uranium deposits
Uranium deposits in time
Unconformity-related U deposits

Smal – below 50Mt

0.3 do 9 % U3O8

Reduction from U6+ to U4+

Athabasca Basin (Kanada), Northern Territory (Australia)

Athabasca basin
Unconformity-related model
 General Characteristics of Vein Deposits

Although as a group the deposits vary considerably in size, mineralogy and geologic environments,
all have certain unifying features:

association in space and time with calc-alkaline igneous activity;

clearly epigenetic with ores having vein-like form

and close spatial relationship to faulting;

ore minerals are deposited as open space filling along dilatant zones or as
replacements of carbonate host rocks;

zonation is characteristic and always present;

deposition is from hydrothermal fluids at depths of less than 3 km;

sulfur is usually of magmatic origin (34S = 0);

districts are structurally complex;

some form of alteration is always present, often sericitic at a minimum;

often see a progression from magmatic water to meteoric water later in the
paragenetic sequence.
“Astronomy was born of superstition;
the eloquence of ambition,hatred, falsehood and flattery;
the geometry of greed;
the physics of idle curiosity;
and even the moral philosophy of human pride.
So art and science owe their birth to our vices."
Jean-Jacques Rousseau