GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC FOR WOMEN

MEDAK – 502110
A Project Report
On
“CONSTRUCTION OF 2BHK RESEDENTIAL BUILDING
(INDUSTRIAL TRAINING)”
Submitted for partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
award of students
DIPLOMA
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING (FINAL YEAR)
BY
D.POOJA REDDY (18069-C-010)
S.ANUSHA (18069-C-033)
Under the guidance of
Mrs. M. VASANTHA
S .L. In civil
Department of Civil Engineering
GPW, Medak

Department of Civil Engineering

 GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC FOR WOMEN MEDAK
STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION & TRAINING
HYDERABAD, TELANGANA
2020
Medak Dist. 502110

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “CONSTRUCTION OF

2BHK RESEDENTIAL BUILDING “ is the Bona fide report of
work carried out by D.POOJA REDDY (18069-C-010) &
S.ANUSHA (18069-C-033) are under the guidance of Mrs. M.
VASANTHA (S .L. In civil) , DURING 16-06-2020 TO 16-12-
2020, In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award
of Diploma in Civil Engineering, to be awarded by the STATE
BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, HYDERABAD.

Mrs. M. VASANTHA Mrs. A. PUNYAVATHI

Internal supervisor Head of the Department
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

External Examiner Signature of Training Incharge

(From Industry)

Internal Examiner
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and

indebtedness to my project Mrs. M.VASANTHA for her
valuable suggestions and interest throughout the
course of this project.
I am also thankful to Principal Dr. K. SUVARNA
LATHA and Head of the department Mrs. A.
PUNYAVATHI for providing excellent infrastructure and
a nice atmosphere for completing this project
successfully.
I convey my heartfelt thanks to the lab staff for
allowing me to use the required equipment whenever
needed.
Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to
thank me for their support through the work. I
sincerely acknowledge and thank all those who gave
directly or indirectly their support in completion of this
work.
 ABSTRACT
Hyderabad is the fifth largest city
in our country. As it is rapidly developing the
construction in the city is very costly.
Economic point of view if the building is
constructed at a far distance from the city it
will be cheaper and residents can live
peaceful without any external polluted
sources. Having a peaceful surroundings s the
main point of view of most of the people in
today’s lifestyle.
  INTRODUCTION
Building construction is the engineering deals with the
construction of building such as residential houses. In a
simple building can be define as an enclose space by walls
with roof, food, cloth and the basic needs of human
beings. In the early ancient times humans lived in caves,
over trees or under trees, to protect themselves from wild
animals, rain, sun, etc. as the times passed as humans
being started living in huts made of timber branches. The
shelters of those old have been developed nowadays into
beautiful houses.
Rich people live in sophisticated condition houses.
Buildings are the important indicator of social progress of
the county. Every human has desire to own comfortable
homes on an average generally one spends his two-third
life times in the houses. The security civic sense of the
responsibility. These are the few reasons which are
responsible that the person do utmost effort and spend
hard earned saving in owning houses. Nowadays the
house building is major work of the social progress of the
county.
Daily new techniques are being developed for the
construction of houses economically, quickly and fulfilling
the requirements of the community engineers and
architects do the design work, planning and layout, etc.,
of the buildings. Draughtsman are responsible for doing
the drawing works of building as for the direction of
engineers and architects. The draughtsman must know his
job and should be able to follow the instruction of the
engineer and should be able to draw the required drawing
of the building, site plans and layout plans etc., as for the
requirements.
 INDEX
1. Marking.
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Site marking for construction
1.3. Precautions while marking on ground.
2. Excavation.
2.1. Introduction
2.2. How does the process work
2.3. The entire process include
2.4. Common types of excavation
2.5. Removal of excess soil.
3. Foundation.
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Functions
3.3. Types of foundations.
4. Plinth or Basement.
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Applications of Plinth
4.3. Purpose of Plinth
4.4. Functions of Plinth.
5. Formwork.
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Requirements of good form work
5.3. Types of formwork
5.4. Advantages and disadvantages of types of
formwork
5.5. Order and method of removing of formwork.
6. Columns.
6.1. Introduction
6.2. RCC columns are mainly constructed in four
different stages. Which are
6.3. Points to be followed during and after concrete
6.4. Types of columns.
7. Beams.
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Types of beams
7.3. Steps involved in construction of beams.
8. Slab.
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Types of slab
8.3. Explanation, advantages and disadvantages of
types slabs.
9. Staircase.
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Components of Staircase.
10.3. Classification of Staircase.
10. Ceiling.
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Functions of Ceiling
11.3. Types of Ceiling.
11. Curing.
12.1 Introduction
12.2. Types of Curing
12.3. Advantages of Curing
12.4. Disadvantages of Curing.
12. Brick Masonry.
13.1 Introduction
13.2. Types of bonds in Brick Masonry.
Mortar.
13.3.Explaination of ingredients used in Mortar.
13.3.1. Sand
13.3.2. Characteristics of Sand
13.3.3. Functions of Sand
13.3.1. Coarse aggregate
13.4. Bricks
13.5. Characteristics of bricks
13.6. Steps involved in manufacturing of bricks
13.7. Types of Mortar.
13. Plastering.
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Objects of plastering
14.3. Types of plastering
14.4. Mixed proportions of plastering.
14. Levelling.
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Types of Levelling
15.3. Advantages of Levelling
15.4. Disadvantages of Levelling.
15. Conclusion.
 1. MARKING:
1.1. Marking is very important to the construction of
Buildings, Bridges, etc.,. Marking is the first step of
construction. Marking out or layout means the process
of transferring a design or pattern to a work piece, as
the first step in the manufacturing process.
➢ Marking out consists of transferring the dimensions
from the plan to the work piece in preparation for the
next step.

1.2. Marking for Construction: Constructed

temporary brick masonry on each outside corner of
the layout and marked the centre line of the building.
This is the final marking and all the measurement is
taken from this final mark. Before marking firstly we
need to check the layout is inclined, square or
rectangular.
1.3. While marking on ground
Correct measurements of distances by steel tape.
Correct fixing of plot boundaries with the help of
location sketches.
Correct marking of face line or centre line.
Checking of distances from at least two independent
measurements.
Use of correct plumb Bob for transferring points on
the ground.
2. Excavation.
• After completion of marking the next step is
excavation.
2.1. Excavation is the process of moving earth, rock or
other materials with tools, equipment or explosives. It
includes earthwork, trenching, wall shafts, tunneling
and underground. Excavation has a number of
important applications including exploration,
environmental restoration, mining and
construction. Among these, construction is one of the
most common applications for excavation. Excavation is
used in construction to create building foundations,
reservoirs and roads. Some of the different processes
used in excavation include trenching, digging, dredging
and site development. Each of these processes requires
unique techniques, tools and machinery to get the job
done right. The processes used will depend upon the
structure that will result from the construction process
2.2. How does the process work ?
Before the excavation process can begin, the site must
be carefully examined to make sure that the natural
habitat and artifacts surrounding it are persevered
throughout excavation. Next, the plans for the size and
depth of the site are made and the excavation
contractors makes drawings from them to clearly mark
the excavation site’s boundaries. Once these two
important steps have been taken, the excavation work
can begin.
2.3. The entire excavation process includes:
setting out corner benchmarks
surveying ground and top levels
excavation to the approved depth
dressing the loose soil
making up to cut off level
the construction of dewatering wells and
interconnecting trenches
making boundaries of the building
the construction of protection bunds and drains.
2.4. Common types of excavation, by both type and
material:
 Bridge
 Borrow
 Channel
 Drainage/Structure
 Dredge
 Earth
 Footing
 Muck
 Roadway
 Underground
2.5. Removal of Excess Soil
Estimate the excavated stuff to be re-utilized in filling,
gardening, preparing roads, etc.As far as possible try to
carry excavation and filling simultaneously to avoid
double handling. Select and stack the required material
in such a place that it should not obstruct other
construction activities. The excess or unwanted material
should immediately be carried away and disposed off.
 Finally the excavation process was completed. For
this excavation process it takes the time period of 3
weeks.
 After completion of excavation the next step is
foundation.
 3. Foundation.
3.1. Foundation is the lowest part of the building
component below the surface of the surrounding
ground, which is in direct contact to the sub-strata and
transmits all the loads to the subsoil.
3.2. Functions of the foundations:
1.To transmit and distribute the total load of the struc­
ture to a larger area of underlying support.
2.To prevent differential settlement of the structure.
3.To provide stability to the structure.
3.3. Types of foundation:
Foundations may be broadly classified as
(a) Shallow Foundation : Where the foundation is
placed on the surface of the earth and load
transfer to the shallow depth its called shallow
foundation.
o Spread footing
o Combined footing
o Strap Footing
o Mat Foundation or Raft Foundation
(b) Deep Foundation : Where the Depth of the
foundation is more than width it’s called Deep
Foundation.
o Spread Footing: Spread footings are those which
spread the super-imposed load of wall or column
over larger area. Spread footing support either
column or wall. It may of following kinds:
• Single footing for column
• Stepped footing for a column
• Sloped footing for a column
• Wall footing without step
• Grillage foundation Grillage Foundation
o Combined Footing: A spread footing which supports
2 or more columns is termed as combined footing.
The combined may be of following kinds:
• Rectangular combined footing
• Trapezoidal combined footing
• Combined wall footing
o Strap footing : A strap footing is a component of a
building’s foundation. It is a type of combined footing,
• consisting of two or more column footings connected by
a concrete beam.
• This type of beam is called a strap beam.
• It is used to help distribute the weight of either heavily
or eccentrically loaded column footings to adjacent
footings.

o Mat Foundation or Raft Foundation : A raft foundation,

also called a mat foundation, is essentially a continuous
slab resting on the soil that extends over the entire
footprint of the building, thereby supporting the
building and transferring its weight to the ground.
• A raft foundation is often used when the soil is weak, as
it distributes the weight of the building over the entire
area of the building
4. Plinth or Basement.
4.1. Plinth is the part of a building structure between
the ground level and the level of the lowest floor above
ground level. In other words Plinth is the base/platform
on which a building structure rests on.
4.2. Applications of Plinth :
• It is mandatory to provide plinth beam in areas that
prone to earthquake.
• Construction of the plinth beam above the natural
ground.
• Minimum Dimension of a Plinth Beam.
• Formwork for Plinth Beam
4.3. Purpose of Plinth :
1.These beams prevent dampness to enter the building
from the foundation.
2.These beams tie all the columns.
3.From the foundation to reach the wall it prevents
cracks.
4.To collapse during an earthquake it prevents the
building.
5.These beams uniformly distribute the load.
4.4. Functions of Plinth :
• It saves buildings by differential settlement
which is cause by partial failure of
substructure or by the failure of soil on
which buildings constructed.
• It provides uniformity to building at plinth
level.
• Distributes super structure load uniformly
to soil via substructure.
• Also plinth beam provides confirmation to
columns of the structure.
5. Formwork :
5.1. Formwork is temporary or permanent molds into
which concrete or similar materials are poured. In the
context of concrete construction, the falsework
supports the shuttering molds.

5.2. Requirements of good form work :

A good formwork should satisfy the following
requirements
1.Easy removal
2.Economy
3.Strength
4.Rigidity
5.Less leakage
6.smooth surface
7.Light weight
8.Quality
9.Supports.
5.3. Types of formwork :
1. Traditional timber formwork :
The formwork is built on site out of timber and plywood.
 It is still used extensively where the labour costs are
lower than the costs for procuring reusable formwork.
2. Engineered Formwork System :
This formwork is built out of prefabricated modules with
a metal frame  Metal formwork systems are better
protected against rot and fire than traditional timber
formwork.
3. Re-usable plastic formwork :
These interlocking and modular systems are used to
build widely variable, but relatively simple, concrete
structures. The panels are lightweight and very robust. 
4. Permanent Insulated Formwork :
This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of
insulating concrete forms (ICF).
5. Stay-In-Place structural formwork systems:
This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of
prefabricated fiber-reinforced plastic forms.
6. Flexible formwork :
 flexible formwork is a system that uses lightweight, high
strength sheets of fabric to take advantage of the fluidity
of concrete and create highly optimized , architecturally
interesting, building forms.
5.4. Advantages and disadvantages of types of
formwork
Advantages Of Formwork :
• Easy to fix and easy to dismantle.
• It can be handled easily because of its light weight.
• It can be re-used for many times.
• The walls and slabs of structures can be casted
simultaneously.
• Monolithic crack free structures can be built using
formwork.

Disadvantages Of Formwork :
• Limited size or shape.
• Excessive loss of heat.
• A very smooth surface will be produced which would
give problems for finishing process.
 5.5. Order and method of removing of formwork :
1.Shuttering forming vertical faces of walls, beams and
column sides which bear no load but are used only to
retain. The concrete should be removed first.
2.Shuttering forming soffit to slabs should
be removed next.
3.Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other
heavily loaded shuttering should be removed in the
end.
6. Columns.
6.1. A column is a vertical member which effectively
takes load by compression. Column transfers the load
of the structure of slabs beams above to below, and
finally load is transferred to the soil. Position of the
columns should be so that there are no tensile stresses
developed at the cross section of the columns.
Columns location should be such that it hides in the
walls partially or fully.
6.2. RCC columns are mainly constructed in four
different stages. which are :
1. Column layouts
2. Column reinforcement work
3. Column formwork
4. Pouring of concrete
1. Column layouts : Column layout work In this stage
of works the location of columns are determined
practically in field. It is done by laying rope according to
grids shown in the drawing and then mark the location
of columns related to rope.
2. Column reinforcement work : After marking the
column locations, we then start to place reinforcement
as instructed in the structural drawing.

3. Column formwork Column formwork : It is a term

used for structures that are used to support forms or
molds for poured concrete columns. It can be as simple
as a reinforced cardboard tube for small cylindrical
columns or very complex forms constructed from many
pieces of wood and metal.
4. Pouring of concrete : Pouring concrete into column
For small quantity of concrete volume we normally
depend on machine-mix concrete and for large
concrete quantity we order ready-mix concrete.
Because, if you use moving pump with ready-mix
concrete and if you want not to exceed 5 feet height
range for dropping concrete that would be difficult.
Curing Concrete which is moist cured for 7 days is
about 50% stronger than uncured concrete
6.3. Points to be followed during and after concrete :
1. Shuttering Stability
2. Releasing Agents
3. Sealing
4. Placing Reinforcement
5. Reinforcement Cover
6. Reinforcement Support
7. Material Supply
8. Embeds in Concrete
9. Mixing location
10. Joints in Concrete
11. Proper Curing
12. Precautions
13. Protection of Concreting
14. Pouring of Concrete and Compaction.
6.4. Types of columns :
1. Tied Column.
2. Spiral Column.
3. Composite column.
4. Axially Loaded Column.
5. Column with Uniaxial Eccentric Loading.
6. Column with Biaxial Eccentric Loading.
7. Short Column.
8. Long Column
9. Square or Rectangular Column
10. Circular column
11. T-Shape column
12. Shape of Steel Column
13. Shape of Composite Column
14. Reinforced Concrete, Steel, timber, Brick, Block,
and Stone Column.
7. Beams.
7.1. A beam is a structural element that primarily
resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its
mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The
loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at
the beam's support points
7.2. Types of beams :
1.Simply supported : A beam supported on the ends
which are free to rotate and have no moment
resistance.
2.Fixed : A beam supported on both ends and
restrained from rotation.
3.Over hanging : A simple beam extending beyond
its support on one end.
4.Double overhanging : A simple beam with both
ends extending beyond its supports on both ends.
5.Continuous : A beam extending over more than
two supports.
6.Cantilever : A projecting beam fixed only at one
end.
7.Trussed : A beam strengthened by adding a cable
or rod to form a truss.
7.3. Steps involved in construction of beams :
According to work arrangement laying of RCC Beam
can be done in 4 stages
1. Formwork.
2. Bending And Binding Steel bars.
3. Laying of Cement Concrete.
4. Curing .

1, Form work : The formwork should be To retain

concrete, formwork or centering and shuttering is
required
2. Bending And Binding Steel bars : At the time of
designing the slab, it is consider that concrete is strong
in compressive strength but weak in tensile strength,
so make the structure safe against the tensile stress,
steel bars are .provided.
3. Laying of Cement Concrete : For small quantity of
concrete volume we normally depend on machine-mix
concrete and filling the beam.
4. Curing : After laying the beam it should be cure for
28 days for getting full strength.
8. Slab.
8.1 Slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces,
usually horizontal in building floors, roofs, bridges, and
other types of structures. The slab may be supported
by walls or by reinforced concrete beams usually cast
monolithically with the slab or by structural steel
beams or by columns, or by the ground.

8.2. Types of slab

1. One way slab : One way slab is supported by
beams on the two opposite sides to carry the load
along one direction.
2. Two-way slabs : Two way slab are slabs that are
supported on four sides. In two-way slabs, the load will
be carried in both directions
3. Flat slab : A flat slab is a two-way reinforced
concrete slab that usually does not have beams
and girders, and the loads are transferred directly
to the supporting concrete columns.
4. Grid slab : A grid slab is a type of building material
that has two- directional reinforcement on the
outside of the material, giving it the shape of the
pockets on a waffle.

8.3. Explanation, advantages and disadvantages of

types slabs.
 According to work arrangement laying of RCC slab
can be done in 4 stages such as formwork or centering
and shuttering, bending and binding MS steel bars and
laying of concrete
5. Formwork
6. Bending And Binding Steel bars
7. Spacing of steel bars
8. Laying of Cement Concrete.
Advantages of types slabs :
1. Flexibility in room layout
2. Reinforcement placement is easier
3. Ease of Framework installation
4. Building height can be reduced
5. Less construction time
6. Prefabricated welded mesh
7. Auto sprinkler is easier.
Disadvantages of types slabs :
1. Span length is medium
2. Not suitable for supporting brittle (masonry)
partitions
3. Use of drop panels may interfere with larger
mechanical ducting
4. Critical middle strip deflection
5. Higher slab thickness.
9. Staircase.
9.1. Staircases provide means of movement from one
floor to another in a structure. Staircases consist of a
number of steps with landings at suitable intervals to
provide comfort and safety for the users.
9.2. Components of Staircase :
1. Stringer – The inclined boards in which the treads
and risers are enclosed.
2. Tread – The top or horizontal surface of a step.
3. Nosing – The visible front of the treads.
4. Riser – The board that forms the face of the step.
The maximum individual rise for domestic flights
is 220mm.
5. Newel – The larger vertical member, plain or
decorative, is usually located on either ends of the
balustrade, or at each bend.
6. Newel Cap – The ornamental top of the newel
post. Often carved shaped or turned.
8. Landing – A resting place, or wide step anywhere
within the staircase or top of a flight of stairs.
Landings are often used to change the direction of
a stair.
9. Handrail – A protective rail designed to prevent
people or objects from falling into an open
stairwell. A moulded rail following the pitch, or
rake of the staircase – which also forms the
top/upper edge of the balustrading.
10. Baluster – The vertical member, plain or
decorative, that acts as the infill between the
handrail and Channel (or tread if cut string).
9.3. Classification of Staircase :
Stairs can be broadly classified into three types:
1. Straight stairs
2. Turning stairs
3. Continuous stairs
1. Straight stairs:
Generally for small houses, available width is very
retractable. So, this type of straight stairs are used in
such conditions which runs straight between two floors.
This stair may consists of either one single flight or more
than one flight with a landing.
2. Turning stairs:
Turning stairs are sub classified as:
a) Quarter turn stairs
b) Half turn stairs ( dog legged stairs)
c) Three – quarter turn stairs
d) Bifurcated stairs.
3. Continuous stairs:
This type of stairs neither have any landing nor any
intermediate newel post. They are geometric in shape.
These are may be of following types.
Circular stairs
Spiral stairs
Helical stairs
10. Ceiling.
10.1. A ceiling is an overhead interior surface that covers
the upper limits of a room. It is not generally considered
a structural element, but a finished surface concealing
the underside of the roof structure or the floor of a story
above.
11.2. Functions of Ceiling
1. Ceilings help create enclosure of and separation
between spaces.
2. They help to control the diffusion
of light and sound around a room.
3. They help prevent the passage of sound between rooms.
11.3. Types of Ceiling.
4.  Suspended ceilings
5. False ceilings
6. Beams ceilings
1. Suspended ceilings : A suspended ceiling hangs from
a metal grid below the existing ceiling that is already in place.
2. False ceilings :  A false ceiling is nothing but a layer of
insulation. It is the suspended ceiling between the main
ceiling and room. It gives beautiful appearance to our interior
home.
3. Beam ceiling : Beam ceilings are typically found in hallways
and corridors for commercial settings and living and dining
rooms for residential settings.
12. Curing :
12.1. Curing is the process of maintaining satisfactory
moisture content and temperature in freshly cast concrete for
a definite period of time immediately following placement.
The process serves two major purposes:
It prevents or replenishes the loss of moisture from the
concrete
It maintains a favorable temperature for hydration to occur
for a definite period.

12.2. Types of Curing :

Water curing can be done using following techniques
1. Ponding
2. Steam Curing
3. Immersion
4. Fogging
5. Wet Covering
1. Ponding is used to cure flat surfaces where water could be
easily ponded.
The best practice is to cure the concrete shortly after the
chemical reaction has started allowing the concrete to be
hardened. Curing conditions will
be maintained during the first 24 hours or at least until the
final setting time of cement has passed.
2. Steam curing and hot water curing is sometimes
adopted. With these methods of curing, the strength
development of concrete is very rapid.
3. Immersion curing done in concrete testing for curing
concrete specimens.
4. Fogging curing use during hot weather, which helps
to reduce the temperature of concrete, by conserving
moisture inside the body of concrete.
5. Wet Covering used to maintain water on the
concrete surface by completely covering the surface
immediately after the concrete has set with Water
absorbent fabrics .
12.3. Advantages of Curing :
1. Concrete never dries as water is applied
frequently.
2. Advantageous for horizontal surface.
3. Helps in cement hydration process
4. Easy to use in horizontal surface.
12.4. Disadvantages of Curing :
5.  requires huge amount of water, so it is a bit costly.
6. Ponding method cannot be used in vertical surface
7. Steam curing method cannot be applied in large
surface.
8. Cold wind affects ponding.
13. Brick Masonry.
13.1. Brick masonry is a highly durable form of
construction. It is built by placing bricks in mortar in a
systematic manner to construct solid mass that
withstand exerted loads.
13.2. Types of bonds in Brick Masonry :
1. Stretcher Bond : In this type of
Bond all the bricks are laid as
stretchers, that is length wise.
This bond is used-in half brick
thick walls.
2. Header Bond : In this bond, all
the bricks are laid all headers.
The elevation of the wall laid
in header bond 
3. English bond : This is the most
common and popular bond and
is used in most of the structures.
The English bond consists of
alternate layers of headers and
stretchers.
4. Flemish Bond : In this type
of bond, each course consists
of header and structures
alternately arranged.
5. Garden wall bond : this
type of bond is used for the
construction of garden walls,
boundary walls, compound
walls. It is used where the
thickness of the wall is one
brick thick & the height does
not exceed two meters.
6. Zigzag bond : In this bond
bricks are laid in zigzag
fashion. This type of bond is
commonly used for making
ornamental panels in the
brick flooring.
Mortar : A mortar is a homogeneous mixture of fixed
proportions of cement, sand, and water.

13.3. Explanation of ingredients used in Mortar.

13.3.1. Sand must be of good quality and free from impurities
like Oxide of irons, Clay, Dust, etc. It must be thoroughly
cleaned before mixing with cement.

13.3.2. Characteristics of Sand

1. It should be clean and coarse.
2. It should be free from any organic or vegetable matter;
usually 3-4 per cent clay is permitted.
3. It should be chemically inert.
4. It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.
5. It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the
atmosphere.
6. It should be well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of
various sizes in suitable proportions.
7. It should be strong and durable.
8. It should be clean and free from coatings of clay and silt.
13.3.3. Functions of Sand
1. It provides strength.
2. It forms bulking in mortars and hence makes it
economical.
3. It provides resistance against shrinkage and
cracking.
13.3.4. Coarse aggregate
Coarse aggregates are generally obtained by blasting
in stone quarries or by breaking them by hand or by
crushers.
Machine - crushed stones consist of stones of various
sizes whereas Hand - broken aggregates consist of
only single size stones.
Coarse aggregates are particulates that are greater
than 4.75mm.
The usual range employed is between 9.5mm and
37.5mm in diameter.
13.4. Bricks : The artificial material of construction in
the form of clay bricks of uniform size of shape are
known as bricks.

13.5. Characteristics of bricks :

Brick should have sharp edges.
Brick shall not break in to pieces when dropped from
height about 1 meter.
Brick shall have low thermal conductivity.
Brick shall be sound proof.
Brick when broken shall show a homogeneous and
uniform compact structure, free from voids.
When soaked in water for 24 hour, brick shall not
show deposit of white salt when allow to dry.
Brick shall not have crushing strength less than
55kg/cm2 .
13.6. Steps involved in manufacturing of bricks :
• Manufacturing of bricks consists of the following 4
operations or steps.
1. Preparation of brick earth
2. Moulding of bricks
3. Air drying of bricks
4. Burning of bricks
1. Preparation of brick earth : In this step the soil is
excavated in steps and then laid on leveled ground. Then
the soil is cleaned of impurities such as vegetation matter,
stones or pebbles etc. After removing impurities it is
exposed to weather for few months. This is called the
process of weathering. After completion of weathering
process the soil is blended with other material to prepare
good brick earth. Then the mixed soil is tempered by being
thoroughly broken up, watered and kneaded. The
tempering is usually done in pug mill.
2. Moulding of bricks : Bricks are moulded in many ways
depending on the quality of the product to be made.
Generally the moulding is done in the following two ways
• Hand moulding
• Machine moulding
For hand moulding the tempered clay is forced in the
mould in such a way that it fills all the corners of the mould.
Extra clay is removed either by wooden strike or frame with
wire. Mould is then lifted up and raw brick is left on ground.
Machine moulding is used where large numbers of bricks
are to be made.
3. Air drying of bricks : Drying is usually done by
placing the bricks in sheds with open sides so as to
ensure free circulation of air and protection from bad
weather and rains. The bricks are allowed to dry till
they are left with 5 to 7 percent moisture content. The
drying period usually varies from 7 to 14days.
4. Burning of bricks : It is the very important step in
manufacture of bricks. Bricks may be burnt by two
distinct methods given below.
• Burning in a clamp known as clamp burning
• Burning in a flame kiln known as kiln burning.
13.7. Types of Mortar :
• Mortar is produced by mixing a binding material
(cement or lime) with fine aggregate (sand, surki, etc)
with water. For construction purpose, different types
of mortar are used. Depending upon the materials
used for mortar mixture preparation, the mortar
could be classified as follows.
1.Cement Mortar
2.Lime Mortar
3.Surki Mortar
4.Gauged Mortar
5.Mud Mortar.
1. Cement Mortar : Cement mortar is a type of mortar
where cement is used as binding material and sand is
used as fine aggregate. Depending upon the desired
strength, the cement to the sand proportion of cement
mortar varies from 1:2 to 1:6.
2. Lime Mortar : Lime mortar is a type of mortar where
lime (fat lime or hydraulic lime) is used as binding
material and sand is used as fine aggregate. The lime to
the sand proportion of cement mortar is kept 1:2. The
pyramids at Giza are plastered with lime mortar.
3. Gauged Mortar : Gauged mortar is a type of mortar
where cement and lime both are used as binding
material and sand is used as fine aggregate. Basically, it
is a lime mortar where cement is added to gain higher
strength. The process is known as gauging. The cement
to the lime proportion varies from 1:6 to 1:9. Gauged
mortar is economical than cement concrete and also
possess higher strength than lime mortar.
4. Surki Mortar : Surki mortar is a type of mortar
where lime is used as binding material and surki is used
as fine aggregate. Surki mortar is economic.
5. Mud Mortar : Mud mortar is a type of mortar where
mud is used as binding material and sawdust, rice husk
or cow-dung is used as fine aggregate. Mud mortar is
useful where lime or cement is not available.
14. Plastering.
14.1. Plastering is the process of covering rough walls
and uneven surfaces in the construction of houses and
other structures with a plastic material, called plaster,
which is a mixture of lime or cement concrete and sand
along with the required quantity of water.

14.2. Objects of plastering :

1.To protect the external surfaces against
penetration of rain, water, and other
atmospheric agencies.
2.To protect the surface against insects and
bugs.
3.To give a smooth surface in which dust and
dirt cannot stick and also giving a decorative
look.
4.The mortar used in plastering is a mixer of
cement, sand, and water.
14.3. Types of plastering :
1.Lime plaster
2.Cement plaster
3.Mud plaster
4.Stucco plaster
1. Lime plaster :
When lime is used as a binding material it is called
lime plaster.
2. Cement plaster :
When cement is used as a binding material it is called
cement plaster.
3. Mud plaster :
The surface to be prepared exactly in the same
manner as that of for lime plaster or cement plaster.
4. Stucco plaster :
Stucco is the name given to decorative type of plaster
which gives an excellent finish.
Stucco plaster can be used for interior as well as
exterior surfaces.
 14.4. Mixed proportions of plastering :
• Mix cement and sand in the ratio of 1:6 (1 cement:6
sand) for inner plastering of bricks. And for outer
plastering mix it in the ratio of 1:4.
• On a brick wall never do plastering of thickness more
than 12 or 15mm.
• At one go, avoid plastering of more than 12mm
thickness.
• On concrete do not do plastering of more than 6mm
thickness.
• Do not plaster on concrete without hacking.
• Plastering on concrete should be in the ratio of 1:3.