Water Treatment Final

WATER TREATMENT
Okello Jimmy
PGDME(MUK),MPH(GULU) BEHS (MUK),
DHLM(UAHIMS)Cert. EHS (UAHMS-Mulago)
okellojimmy1919@gmai.com 1
OBJECTIVES
• By the end of the session, learners should be
able to;
– Define water treatment
– Explain reasons for water treatment
– Name the methods of water treatment
– Explain the different methods of water treatment
– Name the factors which affect water treatment
DEFINITION
• Water treatment is the process of
reducing (organic and inorganic
impurities) from raw water to ensure
that the quality of the water to be
supplied to the consumers is within
acceptable standards.
Goal of water treatment
• The basic goal of water treatment is to protect
public health.
• However, the broader goal is to provide
potable water that is safe to drink, pleasant in
appearance, pleasant in taste and odour, and
cost effective to produce.
Reasons for water treatment
• There are two main reasons for treating
water:-
– To remove contaminants that are harmful to
health. These can be naturally occurring, man-
made or a result of the treatment process itself.
• Health related contaminants can either cause
sickness/illness;
 at very low levels or low exposure (acute contaminants) or
 only after prolonged exposure to the contaminant in drinking
water (chronic contaminants).
Reasons for water treatment
 disinfection byproducts that can be formed during
chlorination.
– To remove aesthetic contaminants from the water
• Aesthetic contaminants normally affect the appearance,
taste, or odor of the water.
• Most of the aesthetic contaminants are not directly harmful
to human health, but their presence may lead to problems
that can indirectly result in health concern.
• Health related contaminants include;
 pathogenic microorganisms, inorganic materials such
as lead, arsenic, nitrate and nitrite, and
 The contaminants include cloudiness or turbidity, iron
and manganese, color, the rotten egg odor caused by
hydrogen sulfide gas and hardness among others.
Methods of water treatment
• In order to remove water contaminants, water
treatment requires;
– chemical,
– physical and
– sometimes biological processes.
• The more common processes used in portable
water treatment are the;
– chemical and
– physical processes.
• Biological processes are primarily used for
treatment of wastewater.
– However, the slow sand filtration process is a biological
process that has been historically used to remove
pathogens from portable water.
– The biological activated carbon (BAC) process is also a
biological process that is used to remove organic
contaminants from portable water.
• The chemical processes involved in portable water
treatment include oxidation, coagulation and
disinfection.
• Physical processes often used include
flocculation, sedimentation, filtration,
adsorption and disinfection using ultraviolet
light.
• The types of processes that are required and
the order in which they are used depend on
the types and concentrations of contaminants
that are must be removed
SMALL SCALE WATER TREATMENT
• This is also called Household level water

treatment.
• It is appropriate when:
 A relatively small amount of water is obtained from a
well or spring and is collected and transported by hand.
 The source is contaminated and simple protective
measures can neither improve water quality nor stop
the contamination.
 Community resources are inadequate to meet the cost
of a simple community treatment system and make it
difficult to develop a centralized treatment system.
Small scale water treatment
 An emergency situation causes disruption of the service and
contamination of the water supply so that a long-term rapid
solution is needed.
1. Storage
– Storage of water for some time reduces nutrients
needed for bacteria/microorganisms survival and
hence reduces the bacteriological content of the
water.
• For example, Schistosoma cercariae are normally unable to
survive 48 hours of storage.
• The number of faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci will
be considerably reduced when the raw water is subjected
to storage.
Storage
• Storage also allows sedimentation to take place,
reducing the settleable solids content of the water.
• On the other hand storage allows water aeration which
makes water palatable. This occurs because iron in the
water is oxidized and precipitated during water storage.
• Draw backs of storage
– It may promote algal growth in the water.
– There is loss of water through evaporation.
2. Sedimentation
• This operates like storage but for water
suspended materials, clean water is decanted off.
• The remaining suspended matter will contain
bacteria.
• A three pot system can be used where water is
put in one pot for 24hrs, then put in another pot
for 24hrs and transferred to the third pot.
• Alum (Aluminium sulphate) is sometimes added
to hasten the rate of settlement.
Sedimentation
• The three pot system
– This is an application of the principles that bacteriological
contamination levels drop over time and through
settlement.
– Water is poured into the first pot, if wanted through a piece
of folded muslin cloth;
• this has the added advantage of also filtering out guinea worm
cysts.
– The water is allowed to settle for as many hours as feasible.
• Storing water for just one day can result in the die-off of more
than 50% of most bacteria.
• Longer periods of storage will lead to further reduction up to 90%.
Sedimentation
• This water is then poured into a second pot and this
procedure is repeated for the third pot from where the
drinking water is drawn.
Sedimentation
• Advantages of 3 pot system:
– It is within control of the users, the family
– It does not require complex infrastructure
– It is fit for rural and peri-urban households
– It is easy to use and to maintain
– It is affordable
– It is a good solution in terms of efficacy, cost
effectiveness, returns and sustainability
• Limitations:
– some bacteria and other micro-organisms might remain
in the water after treatment
3. BOILING
• This is one of the best known techniques.
• The water must boil for at least 10 minutes in a
‘rolling’ boil which simply means that
householders can actually tell that the water has
reached a sufficiently high temperature.
• Reaching 100°C for a few moments will kill most
pathogens
– most are already killed at much lower temperatures
– Pasteurization is effective when the water is heated
to 70°C.
BOILING CONT’D
• Limitations:
– boiling water is time and energy consuming and
therefore it might be difficult for poorer households
to apply it.
• Boiling water uses up fuel.
• Gathering or buying firewood, charcoal or other types of
fuel has an economic price.
– the boiled water takes time to cool down and needs
a safe place to cool down
– the boiled water must be stored separately from un-
boiled water, so one needs separate containers
BOILING CONT’D
– there must be no risk of recontamination during
storage and drawing
– boiling affects the taste of the water, although
increasing the air content by vigorously stirring the
water, or shaking it in a bottle, after cooling will
improve the taste.
4. SMOKED POTS
• Smoking has an effect on bacteria and the
flavor of water is improved.
• Smoking is done using dry leaves, grass,
banana peelings or millet husks.
• However, smoking should be done cautiously
to avoid choosing materials that would change
the quality of water and thus turn out to be
poisonous to man.
5. SOLAR DISINFECTION
• Water can also be treated using solar
disinfection.
• Solar disinfection, is also known as SODIS
• The technique works through a combination of
UV light and heating from the sun to inactivate
and kill pathogenic organisms, especially
bacteria.
• Ultraviolet light from the sun is an effective
bactericide for water.
SODIS CONT’D
• Set up/procedure
– This technique requires only a few plastic bottles
and sunlight.
– Firstly, collect several bottles (0.3 to 2.0 litres)
made of clear plastic
– Remove all labels and wash them thoroughly.
– Fill the bottles with water of low turbidity and
shake for about 20 seconds to aerate the water.
SODIS CONT’D
– Expose the bottles to the sun by placing them on a
roof or rack for at least six hours (if sunny) or two
days (if cloudy).
– The water is now ready to drink.
– Turbid water needs pre-treatment
Figure showing SODIS of water
SODIS CONT’D
• Benefits of solar disinfection include:
– proven reduction of bacteria, viruses and protozoa
e.g. faecal coliforms are reduced by 99.9% -
99.99%
– acceptability to users because of the minimal cost
to treat water, ease of use and minimal change in
water taste
– unlikely recontamination because water is
consumed directly from the small, narrow-necked
bottles (with caps) in which it is treated.
SODIS CONT’D
• The drawbacks include:
– requires relatively clear water (if the water is too
cloudy it has to be filtered first)
– only a limited volume of water can be treated at
one time
– the length of time required to treat it is big.
• In order to be effective, this system must be
part of an intensive community mobilization
and education programme to ensure correct
and consistent application.
6. FILTERING
• This involves the use of straining materials to
exclude suspended materials from water to be
used.
• The filter media may be;
– grass put in funnels,
– cloth,
– sand and stones or
– unglazed porcelain.
FILTERING CONT’D
I. Filtering using grass
• To use this as a filter media, a funnel is made
• It is then put on top of a clean container
• Water is then poured through the funnel into
the collection vessel.
FILTRING CONT’D
II. Filter cloth
• This is a commonly used media.
• Cloth filtration is easy to use and inexpensive.
• A special cloth called a mono filter also exists.
– This can be very effective against;
• cholera,
• guinea worm (dracunculiasis) and
• other disease-causing agents.
Filter cloth cont’d
• The steps in cloth filtration are:
– Use a large cloth, preferably made of finely-woven cotton.
• The cloth must be big enough to easily cover the opening of the
container once it has been folded.
– Fold the cloth at least four times so there are multiple
layers of fabric and place this over the opening of the
storage vessel.
– Fasten the cloth securely around the rim of the opening
and tighten the string.
• If reusing the cloth, always use the same side up each time.
– Filter all water immediately at source as it is being
collected.
Filter cloth cont’d
– Always keep filtered water separated from non-
filtered water.
– Rinse the filter cloth after each use, with a final
rinse using cloth-filtered water, and
– then leave the cloth in the sun until it is dry.
– Clean the cloth regularly using soap and replace it
as soon as there are any visible tears or holes.
Figure showing filtration using a cloth
FILTRATION CONT’D
III. Pot aggregate filter
• Household filters are an attractive option for
household treatment because these filters can
usually be made from;
– locally available and
– inexpensive materials like clay pots or barrels.
• They are simple and easy to use.
• In this method, stones and sand act as the filter
media for the water.
Pot aggregate filter cont’d
• Procedure
– The first (upper) pot is perforated (provided with
small holes) at the bottom to allow dripping of
clean water into the lower pot.
– The upper pot is then packed with graded
aggregates starting with the biggest size at the
bottom and decreasing size upwards to make
approximately a thickness of 5cm.
– Coarse sand in a thickness of 5cm is then put over
graded aggregate followed by 10cm thickness of
fine sand.
– The pot is then put over a second pot with a tap
(faucet) to allow easy drawing of clean water.
– Water is poured in at the top and, as it passes
through the layers of sand, any particles within it
are filtered out.
– The filtered water is then collected in the lower
pot from which it can be drawn.
• NB
– The sand and gravel should be changed when the
rate of filtration starts to slow;
• at minimum it should be changed every two or three
months.
– The first water runs through the filter very fast so
it might not be well filtered
• Such water may be used without further treatment for
other purposes other than drinking.
Household water filter using two clay pots placed on top of each other.
• This method of filtration depends on:-
– Right size of aggregates and sand layers
– Right thickness of the aggregate and sand layers
– Impurities in water which will make the media to
get clogged
– Size of outlet holes
– The sanitation practice of the people using the pot
which will reduce contamination
FILTRATION CONT’D
IV. Bio-sand/slow sand household filters
• In areas where the only source of water is
contaminated, such as a village pond,
community-scale filters have been constructed
and used successfully.
– These filters require considerable care
– Success of the filters hinges upon a community
managed maintenance system.
Bio-sand filter cont’d
• Another option is household sand filters,
usually based on traditional water containers.
– These filters are only effective if used continuously
and maintained properly by the family.
• Bio-sand filters differ from other types of
filters because they make use of biological
activity as well the mechanical filtering of
particles.
Bio-sand filters
• Set up/procedure
– The most widely used version of the bio-sand filter
is a concrete container about one metre in height.
– Fill the container with sand
– The container is filled with water so the water
level is above the sand layer.
– The water allows a ‘bioactive’ layer to grow on top
of the sand.
• This bioactive layer consists of algae, plankton and
other microscopic plant life that helps reduce disease-
causing organisms, particularly protozoa and bacteria.
Bio-sand filters
• Advantages of a bio-sand filter;
– is fairly easy to use,
– can be produced from locally available materials,
– needs little maintenance
– has a long life
– It improves the look and taste of the water and
– It is good for removing protozoa
Bio-sand filters
• Disadvantages
– It has a high initial cost and
– It is difficult to transport.
– It has a low rate of virus inactivation and
– It does not remove 100% of bacteria so
recontamination is possible.
Bio-sand filter figure
FILTRATION CONT’D
V. Ceramic filters
• Ceramic water filters are an inexpensive and effective
type of water filter, that rely on the small pore size of
ceramic material to filter dirt, debris, and bacteria out
of water.
• Ceramic filter systems consist of a porous ceramic
filter that is attached to, or sits on top of a plastic or
ceramic receptacle.
• Contaminated water is poured into a top container. It
passes through the filter(s) into the receptacle below.
The lower receptacle usually is fitted with a tap.
Ceramic filters cont’d
• Typically bacteria, protozoa, and microbial
cysts are removed but;
– the filters are not effective against viruses since
they are small enough to pass through to the
other "clean" side of the filter.
• Ceramic water filters (CWF) may be treated
with silver in a form that will not leach away.
– The silver helps to kill or incapacitate bacteria and
– prevent the growth of mold and algae in the body
of the filter.
• Contaminants larger than the minute holes of the
ceramic structure will remain in the top half of the
unit.
– The filter(s) can be cleaned by brushing them with a soft
brush and rinsing them with clean water.
– Hot water and soap can also be used.
• Ceramic filtration does not remove chemical
contaminants.
– However, some manufacturers (especially of ceramic
candle filters) incorporate a high-performance activated
carbon core inside the ceramic filter cartridge;
– This reduces organic & metallic contaminants.
– The active carbon absorbs compounds such as
chlorine.
– Filters with active carbon need to be replaced
periodically because the carbon becomes clogged
with foreign material.
• There are two common types of ceramic
water filters namely;
– candle type filters
– pot type filters
• The method of getting water through the
candle is only a matter of convenience.
• Only clear water should be used with ceramic
filters;
– otherwise, with cloudy or turbid water, the
candles clog very quickly.
ceramic filters cont’d
• Advantages of ceramic filters

– The majority of bacteria are removed
mechanically through the filters’ very small (0.6–
3.0 microns) pores.
– Ceramic filters are easy to use,
– They are relatively of low cost
– They have a long life if the filter remains
unbroken.
– They are good for reduction of bacteria and
protozoa
• Disadvantages
– They lack residual protection so recontamination
is possible.
A. Pot type ceramic filters
• Structure and operation
– Filter candles can be mounted in a gravity-type
filter, which consists of two reservoirs (aluminium
cans).
– An example of this is the pot type;
Clay pot filter
Figure of clay pot filter
• Structure and operation cont’d
– The first (upper) can has the hollow unglazed porcelain
filtering candle or candles.
– It also has an outlet from the filter candle outside
– The second (bottom) can has faucet for drawing filtered
water since it acts as the storage compartment.
– Raw (unfiltered) water is simply poured in at the top,
trickles through the ceramic candles to the outlet in the
lower compartment.
– Filtered water is drawn from the tap on the lower
compartment
• Limitations
– Suitable for a small community or homes of up to six
people
– Cannot adequately filter water with a lot of impurities
(suspended matter)
• Cleaning of the filter candle
– When it gets clogged, the following measures are taken:-
 Remove the filter candle
 Wash it, scrub with a brush
 Put it into a weaker nitric acid or boil it
 Replace it for further use
• Advantages
– Cheap, simple and easy to use and clean
– Removes pathogens, turbidity and suspended solids
– Somewhat effective for removal of viruses and iron
– Improves taste, smell and colour of water
– Can be constructed with locally available materials
– Keeps water cold safe
– Durable, easy to move and transport (except clay
pot)
• Disadvantages
– Does not remove all the pathogens
– Does not remove chemical contaminants and
colour
– High turbid or iron containing water plugs candle
pores.
• Only suitable for low turbid (<5NTU) water and
• Suitable for water with little iron (0.3mg/l)
– Low flow rate (1-2l/hr) and thus suitable for small
families, organizations and schools
– Clay container is not easy to transport due to its
fragility and heavy weight
– Quality control is difficult to ensure in local
production
• Effectiveness of the ceramic filters
Bacteria Viruses Protozoa Helminths Turbidity
Laboratory > 99% > 90% > 100%  100% 88-97%
Field > 99.95% Not > 100% > 100% 97-88%

available
• General maintenance
– Water should be poured slowly into the container
• Not above the candle as regular water pressure may
damage fragile candle
– Replace cracked candles
• Cracks reduce effectiveness since water can pass
through the cracks without being filtered through the
ceramic pores
– Regularly clean the candles; particularly when
flow rate slows down.
– Observe the precautions below when cleaning the
candle filters;
• Slightly scrub the candle surface with a soft scrubber
brush or cloth to remove any accumulated dirt
• Use clean water (no soap, chlorine or other chemicals)
– Avoid touching the candle with dirty hands or
placing the filters on a dirty surface during
cleaning
– Storage containers, tap, and lid should be cleaned
on a regular basis using soap and water
B. Ceramic candle filters
• Ceramic candle filters are simple devices made out of
clay and used to filter drinking water in order to
remove turbidity, suspended materials and
pathogens.
• Removal takes place by physical process such as
mechanical trapping and adsorption on the ceramic
candles, which have micro-scale pores.
• General design
– Ceramic candle filters basically consist of an upper and a
lower container, one or more ceramic candles in between,
a tap and a lid.
Ceramic candle filters cont’d
– Usually the containers have a diameter of about 30
by 25 cm depth for a treatment capacity of about 8
L and a flow rate of 1-2 L per hour per candle.
– The ceramic candles are screwed into the base of
the upper container.
– To the lower container is attached a tap that allow
to withdraw safe water without risking
recontamination.
– A lid is placed on top of the upper container to
prevent contamination.
– Candles can have very slow flow rates, so it is
common to use two or more candles in one filter.
– The candles are made up of clay and the container
can be made from plastic, aluminium, copper,
steel or clay material.
– Though clay containers keep water cold and tasty,
due to its fragile nature other materials nowadays
replace it.
• Ceramic candle filters can either be;
– Gravity candle filters or
– Pressure candle filters
Candle filter
Pressure candle filters
• These are operated by water being forced into a
filter under force.
• Pressure candle filters include;
– Pasteur chamber land filter
– Berkefeld filter
– Stella-metta filter
• Pressure candle filters consist of unglazed
porcelain, open at the lower end, closed in a
metal cylinder which is connected to the tap
from the main supply.
Pressure candle filters cont’d
• Water is forced through the walls of the filter
by pressure from the main end out through
the opening at the lower end or upper
• A number of candle filter may be arranged in a
special container when large amount of water
is required.
• Frequent cleaning of the tubes is necessary.
– This is done by brushing with a hard brush and
boil the cylinder
Pasteur chamber land
• This consist of a metal can which is connected to
running water tap from the mains
• The can has an unglazed porcelain filter candle
• The filter candle has an outlet outside the can
which is directed into a suitable container which
collects filtered water.
• Water under the pressure from the mains is forced
through the filter candle to the container used to
collect clean water.
• This is suitable for bigger communities up to about
50 people and over
Pasteur chamber land filter
Berkefeld filter
• It consists of a container with an inlet and
outlet originating from the upper part of a
hollow unglazed porcelain filter candle.
• Water enters under pressure from the mains.
• It is forced through the filter candle to the
outlet to be collected.
• It is suitable for bigger communities of about
100 people
Berkefeld filter
Stella-meta filter
• This consists of a glazed casing.
• Inside the casing is a filter which consist of unglazed
porcelain covering a gauze filter, covering metal
rings which cover a fluted metal tube.
• Water from the mains under pressure is forced
through the filter and collected in a suitable
container.
• If there is need for a lot of water for bigger
population, a series of any of these types of filters
are arranged in suitable collecting containers and
water collected accordingly.
Stella-meta filter
b) Another mounting is made where piped water is
available under pressure.
• The candle is mounted in a pressure case which is
attached directly to the water system, filtered water
being drawn from the filter as needed.
c) A third type is fitted with a hand pump.
• The suction tube is put into a vessel of water, and the
pump is operated like a bicycle pump, the filter candle
being inside.
• The filtered water is discharged through another tube.
– Any of these systems is satisfactory if suitable filter
candles are selected.
C. Reverse osmosis
• Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification
process that uses a partially permeable
membrane to remove ions, unwanted molecules
and larger particles from drinking water.
• RO can remove many types of dissolved and
suspended chemical species as well as bacteria
from water.
• The result of RO is that the solute is retained on
the pressurized side of the membrane and the
pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side.
Step by step purification process of RO Water
purifier
• An RO water purifier comes in a combination of a sediment,
carbon filter, RO membrane, UV lamp, UF membrane, and
post carbon filter.
1. Pre-Filters
• Pre-filter removes larger particles such as sand silt, dirt and
other sediments from water.
• The pre-filter helps in protecting the RO membrane that gets
clogged as a result of exposure to sediment and chlorine.
• Carbon filter helps in removing toxic compounds such as
pesticides and is even effective enough in removing bad odor
from water.
Reverse osmosis cont’d
2. Reverse Osmosis Membrane
• The next filter on our list is the RO membrane.
• Water is forced through the semi-permeable
membrane in order to block the minute impurities.
• The membrane is a synthetic plastic material that
stops sodium, chlorine, and even the larger
molecules such as urea, bacteria, and viruses.
• The reverse osmosis drinking water systems also
help in removing lead, arsenic, copper, chromium,
selenium, fluoride and etc.
3. UV Lamp
• RO water purifier also comes with UV lamp that helps
in disinfecting bacteria from the water by killing all
the harmful pathogens present in the water.
• The high power UV ray destroys the illness-causing
microorganisms by attacking their genetic core,
thereby eliminating their ability to reproduce.
• The ultimate work of UV lamp is to destroy 99.99% of
harmful microorganisms from the water, thereby
making it safe for consumption.
4. Ultra-filtration
• The next process of filtration that RO purifier
has is UF.
• It is a type of hollow fibre membrane through
which water is forced to pass leaving the
impurities behind and delivering pure and
clean water.
5. Post Filter (Activated Carbon Filter)
• Before the water finally gets filled in the storage
tank, it passes through post carbon filter.
• The filter removes any remaining contaminants that
slip through the membrane and make it completely
pure and fit for consumption.
• Along with these filters, RO water purifier comes
added with TDS controller that helps in retaining all
the essential natural minerals in the purified water.
• Some of the RO water purifiers come with Save
Water Technology that employs a computer-
controlled process.
• The technology aid in recovering more than
50% water as purified water resulting in less
water wastage.
• Besides, the RO waste water can be used for
different domestic purposes and even for
watering the plant.
Figure showing reverse osmosis unit
Small scale treatment cont’d
6. Chemical disinfection methods
– There are several commercially available products
designed for treating water at household level.
a) Chlorine solution
– Chlorine solution, also known as sodium
hypochlorite solution or bleach, is the most
affordable, easiest to produce, and most widely
available chemical for household water treatment.
– It is supplied in bottles and has easily interpretable
instructions for use on the side of the bottle.
– Typically, the procedure is to;
• add a capful of chlorine solution to a 25 litre water
storage container,
• then shake and wait for 30 minutes chlorine contact
time before drinking.
• Double dosing is advisable if the water is visibly dirty.
• NB:
– Contact time is the amount of time that elapses
when two substances are mixed. Chlorine contact
time means the time between the introduction of
chlorine and using the water.
b) Aquatabs
– Aquatabs are a specifically formulated and branded solid
form of sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC).
– NaDCC is stable in Aquatabs form as a solid which gives
it a longer shelf life and makes storage, handling and
transport much easier than with liquid bleach.
– One Aquatab contains 67 mg of NaDCC and treats 20
litres of clear water.
– For visibly turbid water, two tablets per 20 litres are
needed.
– It is very important to mix well and leave for 30 minutes
contact time before consumption.
c) PUR
– ‘PUR Purifier of Water’ is the brand name of a
combined flocculant and disinfectant product
produced by Procter and Gamble.
– PUR can be used to treat raw source waters with a
wide range of turbidity and pathogen load.
– This water treatment chemical allows flocculation to
take place and helps to remove Giardia and
Cryptosporidium cysts that are resistant to chlorine
disinfection.
– PUR comes in sachets with one sachet needed to
treat 10 litres of water.
• NB
– Flocculation is a process in which suspended solids
are removed from water and turbidity is reduced.
– The solid particles lump together to form ‘flocs’
which slowly settle to the bottom of the container.
– A flocculant is a substance that can be added to
water to encourage this process.
d) Wuha Agar
– Wuha Agar is a chlorine-based water treatment
solution that is used commonly in Ethiopia.
– The procedure is very similar to other chemical
treatment methods.
– For a 20 litre jerrycan, add one capful of Wuha
Agar, cover and shake.
– After 30 minutes contact time you can use it.
Wuha agar PUR Aquatabs
END
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WATER TREATMENT

• This is also called Household level water

• Advantages of ceramic filters

Laboratory > 99% > 90% > 100%  100% 88-97%

Field > 99.95% Not > 100% > 100% 97-88%

THANKS FOR LISTENING

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