03 Rock
03 Rock
03 Rock
2
Porosity
Porous Media
4
Examples of Porous Media
Rocks
Bread, cookies, apple, orange, meat, teabag, and etc
Sponge
Textile materials
Soil, concrete, asphalt, beach sand, brick, snow pack
Wood, trees, plants
Paper, paper towel, teabag
5
Sandstone Core Sample
6
Back-Scattered Electron Image of a North Sea Sandstone
Pore
Clay
Quartz
7
Porosity
One of the most important property of porous media
Porosity is basically a measure of the fluid storage capacity of
subsurface formations
Porosity is defined as the ratio of pore volume to bulk volume
In petroleum engineering, porosity is denoted f
8
Effective Porosity
9
Pore Volume Measurement
10
Liquid Saturation Method – Example
11
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
12
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
Confining fluid
Core
V1
13
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
14
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
15
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
Step 1
Valve V1 is closed
Measure initial pressure in pore space and attached flowline
pp0 = initial pressure inside core and flowline to right of valve V1
Flowline volume is known
Pore volume is unknown
Flowline volume referred to as dead volume
Vd = dead volume
16
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
Step 2
Raise pressure in reference cell, typically from 100 psia to 200 psia
pr0 = initial pressure in reference cell and the flowline attached
The total volume of the reference cell and the flowline between the
reference cell and the valve V1 is known
Vr = total volume of reference cell
17
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
Step 3
Open valve V1
When valve is opened, an additional volume comes into play
Additional volume due to valve stem position in closed and open cases
Vv = additional volume due to valve stem displacement
High pressured gas from reference cell flows into low pressured core
plug
Pressure in reference cell decreases
Pressure in pore space of core sample increases
18
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
19
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
20
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
21
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
22
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
Substituting previous eqs. for number of moles into mass balance eq.
23
Gas Expansion Method to Measure Pore Volume
Example:
A core sample is tested in gas expansion apparatus
Nitrogen gas is used; z = 1
Initial pressure in pore space and the flowline attached is 15 psia
Dead volume is 1 cc
Reference cell volume is 20 cc
Initial pressure in reference cell is 200 psia
Valve displacement volume is estimated to be 0.1 cc
Final equilibrium pressure at the end of the test is 159 psia
Estimate pore volume of the core plug
24
Gas Expansion Method – Example 5
25
Variation of Porosity in Formation
26
Factors Controlling Porosity
Grain packing
Grain shape and sphericity of
Grain size distribution
Lithology and mineral composition
Burial depth
Compaction and consolidation
Confining pressure
Cementation
Clay content
27
Effect of Mineral Composition and Lithology
Solid material constituting skeleton of porous rock is a mixture of
several different minerals such as
Quartz
Feldspar
Calcite
Chalk
Barite
Gypsum
Pyrite
Several different types of clays; illite, kaolinite, and montmorillonite
28
Effect of Mineral Composition and Lithology
29
Effect of Mineral Composition and Lithology
Table 4 – Porosity range for reservoir rocks
Lithology Porosity range
(fraction)
Unconsolidated sands 0.35 - 0.45
Sandstones 0.15 - 0.35
Compact sandstones 0.05 - 0.15
Shales 0 - 0.15
Massive limestones 0.05 - 0.1
Vuggy limestones 0.1 - 0.4
Dolomite 0.1 - 0.3
Chalk 0.05 - 0.4
Granite < 0.01
Basalt < 0.005
Conglomerate 0.01 - 0.15
30
Geometry of Grain Packing
31
Influence of Grain Packing
32
Grain Sorting
33
Effect of Grain Size Distribution
Poorly sorted rocks have a wide range of grain sizes; their grain sizes
vary several orders of magnitude
The porosity of the poorly sorted rocks is very low
Very well sorted rocks are composed of fairly uniform size grains
Very well sorted rocks exhibit high porosity values
34
Impact of Cementation
35
Impact of Cementation
36
Influence of Clay Content
37
Influence of Clay Content
Some of the original void space between quartz grains is lost due to clay filling
38
Effect of Confining Stress
Reservoir rocks are overburdened by weight of geological layers above reservoir rock
Weight of upper geologic layers imposes a stress on the reservoir rock
This stress is known as overburden stress or pressure
Pore space of reservoir rock is filled by reservoir fluids such as oil, gas, and water
Reservoir fluids results in a hydrostatic pressure inside pore space
Overburden pressure is much higher than reservoir fluid pressure
The difference between overburden pressure and reservoir pressure is known as confining
pressure
Experimental observations and measurements have proven that porosity decreases
markedly with an increase in confining pressure
39
Effect of Confining Stress
40
Fluid Saturations
Fluid Saturations
42
Fluid Saturations
43
Fluid Saturations
44
Irreducible and Movable Fluid Saturations
Some stagnant water is trapped in smaller pores, referred to as connate water,
interstitial water, or irreducible water
Similarly, if we inject water into 100% gas saturated core sample, the injected water
will displace most of the gas out of the core
Some volume of gas will be trapped inside the porous material
Reservoir rocks are also subject to an irreducible gas phase
The term residual gas is also used to refer to the trapped gas phase
When core sample contains oil besides gas and water, it also has a residual or
irreducible oil phase
In the literature, mostly we use the phrase residual for stagnant oil and gas phases
and the term connate for inert water phase
45
Irreducible and Movable Fluid Saturations
Consider a core sample with a pore volume of Vp and initial oil, gas, and
water volumes of Vo, Vg, and Vw
Irreducible volumes of oil, gas, and water are Vor, Vgr, and Vwc
Then irreducible saturations are defined as follows:
46
Irreducible and Movable Fluid Saturations
47
Irreducible and Movable Fluid Saturations
The movable oil, gas and water saturations are defined as follows
48
Fluid Saturations in Porous Rocks
Sg Sgm Sgr
Som Sor So
Sw Swm Swc
49
Measurement of Irreducible Fluid Saturations
50
Measurement of Irreducible Fluid Saturations
51
Core Flooding System
52
Measurement of Residual Oil Saturation
Pressure transducer
Dp
Core
V1 V2
53
Wettability
Wettability and Contact Angle
Wettability is relevant to not only a porous medium containing multiple fluids but
also any solid residing in contact with two different immiscible fluids
When a solid material is in contact with more than one fluid, it prefers to be wetted
by one of the fluids
Wettability is the tendency of one fluid to spread over a solid surface in the presence
of multiple immiscible fluids
Air
qgma
qgwa qgoa
Water Mercury Oil
55
Wettability and Contact Angle
56
Wettability and Contact Angle
57
Wettability and Contact Angle
Based on the numerical value of contact angle, hydrocarbon reservoirs
are classified as
Strongly water wet, 0º < q < 30º
Moderately water wet, 30º < q < 75º
Neutrally wet, 75º < q < 105º
Moderately Oil wet, 105º < q < 150º
Strongly Oil wet, 150º < q < 180º
58
Wettability and Contact Angle
sow
Oil
q
Water
sso ssw
ssw
59
Wettability and Contact Angle
Wettability plays a significant role in the distribution of fluid saturations
in reservoir
If the reservoir rock is oil wet, then oil phase covers the internal surfaces
of pores and forms a thin film around the individual rock grains
In oil-wet reservoir, oil is the continuous phase and water is the
discontinuous phase
Typically, in oil-wet systems, residual oil saturation to water flooding is
higher
60
Water wet Oil wet
61
Absolute Permeability
Permeability of Porous Rocks
63
Permeability of Porous Rocks
When the velocity is relatively low, the fluid flow through the porous
medium is characterized by Darcy’s law
Darcy’s law is based on the experimental observations
In 1856, Henry Darcy investigated water flow through sand filters
An incompressible fluid such as water flows through a sand pack
Fluid flow takes place under steady state conditions
Fluid flow is one dimensional
Gravitational forces are negligible
64
Permeability of Porous Rocks
Darcy observed that the flow rate across a linear porous rock is
controlled by the following parameters
Pressure drop across the porous medium
Cross sectional area normal to flow direction
Length of porous medium p1 p2
Viscosity of fluid Dp
q q
A
L
65
Permeability of Porous Rocks
66
Unit for Permeability
67
Units for Permeability
68
Units for Permeability
69
Permeability – Example 1
70
Permeability
71
Permeability – Example 1
72
Permeability – Example 1
Table 2 – q vs flow group ADp/mL for Example 1
Test # q Dp ADp/mL
() (cc/s) (atm) (cm×atm/cp)
1 0.1 4.76 1.5833
2 0.2 9.52 3.1665
3 0.3 13.27 4.4105
4 0.4 17.69 5.8807
5 0.5 23.13 7.6901
6 0.6 27.89 9.2734
7 0.7 31.97 10.6305
8 0.8 35.37 11.7614
9 0.9 40.82 13.5708
10 1.0 45.92 15.2672
73
Permeability – Example 1
A well defined straight line on q vs ADp/mL plot
Slope = k = 0.0661 d = 66.1 md
74
Superficial and Actual Fluid Velocities
A
v = q/Ap
Am Ap f A
Ap
q q u 1 k dp
v
Αp A μ dx
A = Ap+Am
75
Darcy’s Equation in Field Units – Liquid Flow
Darcy’s equation in the oilfield units through unit conversion
76
Darcy’s Equation in Field Units – Gas Flow
When we deal with gas flow, the flow rate is typically measured in unit
of cuft/D and superficial velocity is expressed in unit ft/D
77
Compressible Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
78
Compressible Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
p1 p2
Dp
79
Compressible Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
80
Compressible Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
Express mass flow rate in terms of volumetric flow rate and gas density
at standard conditions
Mass flow rate:
81
Compressible Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
=
Rearranging mass balance equation
Gas EOS
82
Compressible Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
Integrating
83
Compressible Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
Gas flow experiments are typically run at low pressures and ambient temperature
In such conditions, the product of mz is nearly constant
Integrating
84
Compressible Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
85
Compressible Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
86
Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
87
Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
88
Gas Flow Through Porous Rocks
89
Limitations of Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s law is developed for incompressible liquid flow in porous rocks
Darcy’s law is valid for low liquid velocities
At high liquid velocities, Darcy’s law is no longer valid
Permeability is measured by flowing gas through core plugs at low pressures
Permeability calculated using the equation above at low test pressures is higher than
the true permeability
This is due to a physical phenomenon known as gas slippage at the pore surfaces
Gas slippage phenomenon in pores is formulated by Klinkenberg
90
Gas Flow at Low Pressures and Klinkenberg Effect
91
Klinkenberg Plot
kag
kL
0 1/p~
92
Gas Flow at Low Pressures and Klinkenberg Effect
93
Gas Flow at Low Pressures and Klinkenberg Effect
Step 1: Starting with the lowest mean pressure, measure apparent gas
permeability at several mean pressures, typically four tests
Step 2: Construct a plot of kag versus
kag versus plot is referred to as Klinkenberg plot
The Klinkenberg plot should display a straight line
Step 3: Liquid permeability kL is equal to intercept of the straight line
Step 4: The Klinkenberg coefficient may be computed from the slope of
the straight line on the Klinkenberg plot
94
Klinkenberg Slip Effect – Example 5
Table 3 – Apparent gas permeability at low pressures (After Klinkenberg)
p~ 1/p~ kag p~ 1/p~ kag
(psia) (1/psia) (md) (psia) (1/psia) (md)
0.1523 6.56812 290.00 44.1909 0.02263 25.43
0.1597 6.25996 280.00 47.3799 0.02111 25.09
0.1747 5.72294 259.00 64.1627 0.01559 25.02
0.2400 4.16692 197.00 74.2001 0.01348 24.72
0.2973 3.36360 165.00 74.9496 0.01334 24.62
0.3433 2.91292 148.00 93.1726 0.01073 24.34
0.4628 2.16087 117.00 93.1726 0.01073 24.29
0.8702 1.14923 75.60 94.4953 0.01058 24.25
1.3053 0.76611 60.00 131.3822 0.00761 23.79
2.1515 0.46479 46.60 131.3822 0.00761 23.85
5.0451 0.19821 34.20 135.0562 0.00740 23.93
11.7421 0.08516 28.60 182.9652 0.00547 23.66
23.0727 0.04334 26.79 183.4061 0.00545 23.82
23.2344 0.04304 26.58 241.6022 0.00414 23.67
26.4822 0.03776 26.49 241.7492 0.00414 23.77
29.9358 0.03340 26.23 294.0670 0.00340 23.55
30.0533 0.03327 26.33 294.0670 0.00340 23.65
39.0473 0.02561 25.22
95
Klinkenberg Slip Effect – Example 5
96
Klinkenberg Plot – Example 5
97
Klinkenberg Plot – Example 5
The predicted from gas flow tests agrees very well with the liquid
permeability of from liquid flow tests
98
High Velocity Flow in Porous Media
Darcy flow
dp/dx
99
Variation of Permeability
100
Variation of Permeability
101
Table 13 – Core plug permeability along depth, Hiram Well #17
Sample # Depth Permeability Sample # Depth Permeability
() (ft) (md) () (ft) (md)
1 2,880 1,271.0 25 2,904 49.0
2 2,881 1,239.0 26 2,905 36.0
3 2,882 1,184.0 27 2,906 23.0
4 2,883 1,891.0 28 2,907 20.0
5 2,884 1,500.0 29 2,908 0.1
6 2,885 1,271.0 30 2,909 56.0
7 2,886 1,565.0 31 2,910 49.0
8 2,887 1,325.0 32 2,911 26.0
9 2,888 967.0 33 2,912 33.0
10 2,889 717.0 34 2,913 26.0
11 2,890 728.0 35 2,914 36.0
12 2,891 554.0 36 2,915 42.0
13 2,892 130.0 37 2,916 33.0
14 2,893 218.0 38 2,917 39.0
15 2,894 466.0 39 2,918 52.0
16 2,895 684.0 40 2,919 56.0
17 2,896 600.0 41 2,920 33.0
18 2,897 336.0 42 2,921 46.0
19 2,898 150.0 43 2,922 36.0
20 2,899 277.0 44 2,923 29.0
21 2,900 78.0 45 2,924 33.0
22 2,901 101.0 46 2,925 23.0
23 2,902 82.0 47 2,926 33.0
24 2,903 82.0
102
Permeability Distribution Along Well Depth
103
Variation of Permeability
104
Variation of Permeability
105
Factors Controlling Permeability
Many factors affect the permeability of porous rocks
Porosity
Microfractures and vugs
Pore size distribution
Lithology and mineral composition
Burial depth
Compaction and consolidation
Confining pressure
Cementation
Clay content and clay swelling
106
Factors Controlling Permeability
Reservoir rocks are subject to large stresses. Under high stresses, some
reservoir rocks may be naturally fractured. Natural fractures in the order of 1
cm long are called microfractures. Microfractures may enhance permeability of
porous rocks substantially
Some carbonated rocks contain vugs. Vugs are very large pores in the order of 1
mm to 1 cm in diameter. Especially, when vugs are interconnected and form a
network, permeability of porous rock may be improved considerably.
A rock with larger grains possesses higher permeability. Smaller grain sizes
lead to smaller pores and lower permeability. In general, poorly sorted porous
rocks have low permeability values. Cementation reduces pore sizes and
consequently lowers permeability.
107
Factors Controlling Permeability
Most reservoir rocks contains small amount of free clay particles. Clays are
sensitive to changes in salinity. When pore filling clays are contacted by fresh water
or aqueous fluids with lesser salinity, clays swell and increase their volume. Clay
swelling may reduce permeability substantially
As burial depth increases, overburden stress acting on reservoir rock increHigher
overburden stress leads to more consolidation of porous material and reduces
permeability. As a general rule of thumb, permeability decreases with increasing
burial depth.
108
Effect of Confining Pressure
Permeability as a function of
confining pressure
pc k
(psia) (md)
1,416 0.0370
1,945 0.0345
2,455 0.0331
2,900 0.0320
3,444 0.0319
3,927 0.0311
4,437 0.0307
4,925 0.0312
109
Permeability-Porosity Cross Plot – Example 13
110
Effective and Relative Permeability
Effective Oil Permeability at Connate Water Saturation
Saturate the core entirely with water, Sw = 1.0
Start injecting oil
Keep injecting oil until no more water is produced from core
Due to irreducible saturation, not all the water initially contained in
pore system could be displaced out of the core
Some portion of the initial water volume would be trapped in the
porous medium in the form of connate water saturation
At end of oil displacing water process, saturations in core are Sw = Swc
and So = 1.0 – Swc
112
Effective Oil Permeability at Connate Water Saturation
Continue oil injection process
Measure qo, Dpo, mo, A, and L
Calculate permeability as follows
at Sw = Swc
Under two phase flow conditions, even the sum of the permeabilities to
each phase is lower than the single phase permeability .
113
Effective Water Permeability at Residual Oil Saturation
Saturate core entirely with oil, So = 1.0
Start injecting water
Keep injecting water until no more oil is produced from core
Due to residual oil saturation, not all oil initially contained in pore
system could be displaced out of core
Some portion of initial oil volume would be trapped in porous medium
in form of residual oil saturation
At end of water displacing oil process, saturations in core are So = Sor
and Sw = 1.0 – Sor
114
Effective Water Permeability at Residual Oil Saturation
Continue oil injection process
Measure qw, Dpw, mw, A, and L
Calculate permeability as follows
at So = Sor
115
Two-Phase Flow and Effective Permeability – Figure 2
p1 p2
Dp
qo qo
qw qw
A
L
𝑘𝑜 ( 𝑆𝑤 ) =𝑞 𝑜 𝜇 𝑜 𝐿/ 𝐴 ∆ 𝑝 𝑜 𝑘𝑤 ( 𝑆𝑤 )=𝑞𝑤 𝜇 𝑤 𝐿/ 𝐴 ∆ 𝑝𝑤
116
Effective Oil and Water Permeabilities – Two-Phase Flow
Consider a case in which both oil and water phases are mobile
So > Sor, Sw > Swc, So + Sw = 1.0
Simultaneously inject oil and water at flow rates of qo and qw
Determine effective permeabilities to both phases as a function of Sw
Given qo, qw, mo, mw, Dp, A, and L, compute ko and kw
117
Effective Oil and Water Permeabilities – Two-Phase Flow
118
Effective Permeability to Oil and Water
k
ko(Swc)
ko
and
kw kw(Sor)
Swc 1-Sor
119
Relative Permeabilities
Relative permeability applies to multi phase flow in porous media
Relative permeability to a phase is defined as ratio of effective phase
permeability under multi phase flow condition to single phase liquid
permeability
Oil and water relative permeabilities are defined as
120
Relative Permeabilities
121
Imbibition and Drainage Displacement Processes
122
Imbibition and Drainage Displacement Processes
123
Relative Permeability Hysteresis – Figure 5
1.0
Drainage Imbibition
kro
kro
krw 0.8
krw
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Sw
124
Measurement of Absolute Permeability
Steady State Method Using Liquids
126
Steady State Method Using Liquids
127
Steady State Liquid Permeability Measurement
Pressure transducer
Dp
Core
V1 V1
128
Steady State Liquid Permeameter, Vinci Technologies
129
Steady State Liquid Permeability Measurement
Core sample is cleaned, dried, and saturated with the test liquid
Cylindrical core plugs are inserted into rubber sleeve
Two end caps are pressed against the core sample at the axial ends
End caps are designed with flow distributors
A flow distributor receives the fluid from flowline and distributes it
uniformly at the face of core plug
Flow distributor ensures that flow across core is one dimensional
Rubber sleeve and end caps protect core plug from external fluids
130
Steady State Liquid Permeability Measurement
Annular space between core holder and rubber sleeve and end caps is
filled with a confining liquid
Annular liquid is pressurized
It is of utmost importance that there is no fluid leakage from the core
and there is not any external fluid entry into the core sample
Constant rate pump injects test liquid into core sample
Liquid injection pumps can inject fluid at several different rates
Liquid injection pumps are equipped with a gear box to set the rate
131
Steady State Liquid Permeability Measurement
132
Steady State Liquid Permeability Measurement
Initially, pressure drop across the core sample increases and varies with
time
After some time transients die out, pressure drop stabilizes and
becomes constant
Permeability is estimated from Darcy’s equation
133
Steady State Liquid Permeameter – Example 9
134
Steady State Gas Permeameter
The most common gases used to measure permeability are listed below.
Air
Helium
Nitrogen
Other gases; hydrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, and methane
Gases are clean, nonreactive, and do not alter the pore structure
Experimental apparatus is simpler
Experiments using gases are much faster
Gas permeameters can measure very low permeabilities (md and hd)
135
Steady State Gas Permeameter
136
Steady State Gas Permeameter
137
Steady State Gas Permeameter – High Pressures
138
Steady State Gas Permeameter – High Pressures
Pressure transducer
Dp
139
Steady State Gas Permeameter
140
Steady State Gas Permeameter – Klinkenberg Plot
141
Estimation of Relative Permeability
Steady State Methods
143
Steady State Methods
144
Steady State Methods – Test Procedure
145
Steady State Methods – Test Procedure
146
Steady State Methods – Test Procedure
147
Steady State Methods – Test Procedure
148
Steady State Methods – Test Procedure
(26)
(27)
Note that, in Eqs. 26 and 27, pressure drops in oil and water phases are
different
When oil and water flow inside porous rock, there is a pressure
difference between oil and water phases due to capillary pressure pc
Since saturation distribution inside porous rock is uniform so is capillary
pressure
Capillary pressure does not change along core length
149
Steady State Methods – Test Procedure
Inlet and outlet pressures are measured in bulk fluids at just outside
both ends of core sample not inside porous rock
There should not be any capillary pressure in bulk fluid phases
Pressure drops in both oil and water phases should be the same
It is reasonable to assume that
(28)
Dp = pressure drop across core
Using Eq. 28 in Eqs. 26 and 27,
150
Steady State Methods – Test Procedure
(29)
(30)
After computing ko and kw, relative permeabilities are calculated using
either Eqs. 20 and 21 or Eqs. 22 and 23
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
151
Steady State Method – Example 1
152
Steady State Method – Example 1
Table 1 – Basic rock and fluid data, Table 2 – Oil and water rates and wet core
Example 1 weight data for steady state relative
Parameter Value permeability experiment
L, cm = 5.0
d, cm = 3.0
Index qo qw Wwc
f, fraction = 0.15
mo, cp = 10.0 () (cm3/s) (cm3/s) (g)
mw, cp = 1.0 1 0.05556 0.00000 84.9679
k, d = 0.15 2 0.04547 0.00434 85.0209
ro, g/cm3 = 0.85 3 0.03608 0.01736 85.0739
rw, g/cm3 = 1.05 4 0.02745 0.03906 85.1270
Dp, atm = 3.275 5 0.01964 0.06944 85.1800
A, cm =2
7.0686
Vb, cm =3
35.3429 6 0.01276 0.10851 85.2330
Vp, cm =3
5.3014 7 0.00694 0.15625 85.2860
Vm, cm = 3
30.0415 8 0.00246 0.21268 85.3390
WDc, g = 80.0906
9 0.00000 0.27778 85.3920
153
Steady State Method – Example 1
154
Steady State Method – Example 1
155
Steady State Method – Example 1
156
Steady State Method – Example 1 – Figure 6
157
In the absence of experiment data, we rely on empirical relative permeability models
158
159
Empirical Methods for Two-Phase Relative Permeabilities
160
Empirical Methods for Two-Phase Relative Permeabilities
161
Electrical Properties of Brine and Rocks
Electrical Properties
Subsurface rocks transmit electrical current when they contain formation water with
dissolved electrolytes
Typically, except some types of clays and conductive metallic minerals, reservoir
rocks are not electrically conductive when they are dry
Subsurface hydrocarbons do not allow electrical current flow
Pure water is not electrically conductive
Formation water contain dissolved salts such as NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, NaSO4...
The salts in subsurface waters are in the form of
positively charged cations (Na+, K+, Mg++, Ca++)
163
Conductivity and Resistivity
164
Conductivity and Resistivity
I
Ammeter Source
DV
Voltmeter
Saline water
Na+ Cl-
A
L
165
Conductivity and Resistivity
rw = resistance in ohm, W
The relationship between current and potential (voltage) drop may also
be formulated in terms of resistivity Rw
Rw = resistivity in ohm-meter, Wm
166
Conductivity and Resistivity
Cw = conductivity in 1/Wm
Resistivity of formation waters is dependent upon
Temperature
Concentration of dissolved salts
Type of dissolved salts
167
Resistivity of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Brines
168
Resistivity of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Brines
Resistivity of Sodium Chloride Brine
Resistivity, Wm
T Sppm = 1,000 Sppm = 10,000 Sppm = 100,000
(ºF) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
50 6.9 0.8 0.105
75 5.6 0.58 0.075
100 3.9 0.42 0.056
125 3.1 0.35 0.045
150 2.6 0.29 0.038
175 2.2 0.24 0.032
200 1.9 0.21 0.029
250 1.5 0.17 0.023
300 1.2 0.075 0.020
169
Resistivity of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Brines
The parts per million of solids in brine is defined as grams of solids per 1 million grams of brine
170
Resistivity of NaCl Brines
171
Component Multipliers for Correcting Total Salinity
172
Resistivity of Formation Brine – Example 1
173
Resistivity of Formation Brine – Example 1
Brine composition
Component Sppm
(ppm)
Ca 8,000
Mg 2,000
Na 25,000
HCO3 5,000
SO4 10,000
Cl 30,000
Total 80,000
174
Resistivity of Formation Brine – Example 1
80,000 ppm
175
Resistivity of Formation Brine – Example 1
176
Resistivity of Formation Brine – Example 1
80,000 ppm
177
Resistivity of Formation Brine – Example 1
178
179
Subsurface Pressures
Subsurface Pressure Regimes
181
Hydrostatic Fluid Pressure and Pressure Gradient
182
Hydrostatic Fluid Pressure and Pressure Gradient
183
Static Pressure Due To a Fluid Column
pwh
pwh p
z=0
z
Fluid
Fz
z
Slope ~ rf
184
Hydrostatic Fluid Pressure and Pressure Gradient
185
Hydrostatic Fluid Pressure and Pressure Gradient
186
Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient
Eq. above indicates that static pressure increases linearly with depth
Pressure gradient = change in static pressure for a unit depth change
Differentiating eq. above with respect to depth variable z
187
Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient
188
Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient
189
Overburden Stress (Pressure)
190
Overburden Stress on Reservoir Rocks
191
Overburden Stress (Pressure)
192
Overburden Stress (Pressure)
193
Overburden Stress (Pressure)
194
Pore (Reservoir) Pressure in Subsurface Formations
195
Pore (Reservoir) Pressure in Subsurface Formations
196
Pore (Reservoir) Pressure in Subsurface Formations
197
Pore (Reservoir) Pressure in Subsurface Formations
Crack
filled
with
water
z
Reservoir
198
Pore (Reservoir) Pressure in Subsurface Formations
199
Pore (Reservoir) Pressure in Subsurface Formations
200
Pore (Reservoir) Pressure in Subsurface Formations
201
dpp/dz 0.465 psi/ft
dpov/dz 1 psi/ft
Subsurface Pressure Regimes
re
ssu ion
Pressure
pre reg
202
tic ed
sta sur
ho res
Lit verp ure
O ress
tic p
osta gion
Hydr red re
pressu
Under
Depth
Matrix (Grain) Pressure
203
Matrix (Grain) Pressure
204
Matrix (Grain) Pressure
pov
Overburden pressure
Grain
pov
Pore pressure
205
Matrix (Grain) Pressure
206
Matrix (Grain) Pressure
207
Confining Pressure
208
Matrix (Grain) Pressure
Real reservoir rocks may not satisfy all the assumptions listed above
Real reservoir rocks may be exposed to non-uniform vertical
overburden and external lateral stresses
Lateral stresses in x and y directions are lower than the vertical
overburden pov
209
Matrix (Grain) Pressure
210
Interaction among Subsurface Pressures During Production
211
Interaction among Subsurface Pressures During Production
212
North Sea Chalk Reservoir – Example 1
213
North Sea Chalk Reservoir – Example 1
Pore Oil Matrix Confining
Time pressure production pressure pressure
(months) (psia) (MMSTB) (psia) (psia)
0 7,150 0.000 6,995 4,850
6 6,600 8.072 7,380 5,400
12 5,800 22.549 7,940 6,200
18 4,950 36.369 8,535 7,050
21 4,500 43.473 8,850 7,500
24 4,350 49.182 8,955 7,650
30 4,060 58.383 9,158 7,940
36 3,840 64.812 9,312 8,160
42 3,660 69.562 9,438 8,340
48 3,480 74.572 9,564 8,520
54 3,260 78.400 9,718 8,740
60 3,100 81.275 9,830 8,900
66 2,940 83.879 9,942 9,060
72 2,800 86.401 10,040 9,200
214
North Sea Chalk Reservoir – Example 1
215
North Sea Chalk Reservoir – Example 1
216
North Sea Chalk Reservoir – Example 1
217