Computer Generations

Generations of computers are mainly divided according to the development of computer

technology. Each generation defines the major technological developments on which computer
systems were/are based.

In the early days of development, the 'generation of computers' was intended solely to
illustrate the difference between hardware technologies. However, nowadays the term is the
conclusion of both hardware and software changes involved in the path of computer
development. In particular, the term 'generation' refers to development that changes the way
computers work. Moreover, frequent improvements were made to make computer devices
more compact in size, cheaper in price, more powerful and smarter, etc.
How many generations of computers are there?
First Generation (1942-1954),
Vaccum tube based
 First Generation (1946 – 1959)
• This is the earliest generation of computers, known as the first
generation of computers.
• The first generation period is considered from 1946 to 1959.
• During the first generation, computers were developed using
vacuum tubes as the core technology.
• First-generation computers used the machine language, the
lowest-level programming language so that it could be easily
processed and understood by computers.

• ENIAC, short for Electronic Numeric Integrated and Calculator,

is the most popular example of the first generation computer.
Other examples include UNIVAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, IBM-650,
IBM-701, Manchester Mark 1, Mark 2, Mark 3, etc.

Advantages of the First Generation Computers

•Vacuum tubes were used in first-generation computers, and the

generation helped introduce computer devices.
•Due to the use of machine languages, computers of this generation were
faster as early development.
•Computers were able to perform calculations in milliseconds.


Disadvantages of the First Generation Computers

•First-generation computers were very large and could also cover an

entire room.
•Computers of this generation generated too much heat and required a
large cooling system.
•Storage capacity in computers was very low in this generation.
Second Generation (1954 to 1964),
Transistor based
 Second Generation (1959 – 1965)
•The second generation of computers began with the widespread use of
transistors. In this generation, vacuum tube are no longer the main piece of
technology. They were replaced by transistors.
• The second-generation period is considered from 1959 to 1965.
• Magnetic cores (as primary memory devices) and magnetic tapes (as
secondary storage devices) were also used for memory requirements in
computers.
•During the second generation, computers used assembly languages instead
of binary machine languages. Besides, early versions of high-level
languages, such as COBOL and FORTRAN, were also introduced in this
generation.
•The CDC-3600 and IBM-7094 are the most popular first-generation
computers. Other examples include UNIVAC- 1108, IBM-7070, CDC-1604,
IBM-1400 series of computers, IBM-1600 series, IBM-7000 series,
Honeywell-400, etc.
Advantages of the Second Generation Computers

•The transistor helped to make the second generation computer

slightly smaller than the first generation computer.
•Due to magnetic core technology, computers of this generation could
store instructions in memory.
•Computers became faster, reliable, and were able to perform
calculations in microseconds.

Disadvantages of the Second Generation Computers

•A cooling system was still needed in the second generation.

•Second-generation computers required maintenance at regular
intervals.
•The cost of the computer was still high; however, less than the first
generation computer.
Third Generation (1964 to 1972),
IC (Integrated Circuit) based
 Third Generation (1965 – 1971)
• The third generation of computers was characterized by the use
of integrated circuits (ICs) in computers rather than transistors.
• The third generation period is considered from 1965 to 1971. In
this generation, integrated circuits were used as the main piece of
technology.
• The integrated circuits were very small in size and helped to make
the computer smaller than its predecessor.
• Besides, advanced input-output devices, such as a mouse,
keyboard, and monitor were introduced in this generation. Before
these devices, computers used punch cards and printouts. In
terms of languages, third-generation computers used higher-level
languages such as COBOL, BASIC, ALGOL-68, PASCAL PL / 1,
FORTRAN-II to IV, etc.
• Computers developed under the IBM-360 family series are the
best examples of third-generation computers. Other examples
include PDP-8, PDP-11, TDC-316, Honeywell-6000 series, ICL
Advantages of the Third Generation Computers
• Third-generation computers were smaller than previous-
generation computers, making second-generation computers
portable and available for commercial use at relatively low
prices.
• Computers were fast, reliable, and could perform calculations in
nanoseconds. They also had more storage availability.
• Computers in the third generation produced less heat and
became more energy efficient than the previous generation.

Disadvantages of the Third Generation Computers

• Third-generation computers also required a cooling system.
• Production and maintenance of integrated circuits were difficult
at that time.
• The price of third-generation computers was still high for
personal needs.
Fourth Generation (1972 to 1990),
VLSI Technology based
 Fourth Generation (1971 – 1980)
•The fourth-generation period is considered from 1971 to 1980.
•During this generation, computers were developed using the microprocessor as
the main component of the technology. Microprocessors were also based on
LSI (Large Scale Integration) and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
technologies.
•They were developed by assembling several integrated circuits on a single
silicon chip.
•Microprocessors not only helped make computers smaller but also made them
so powerful and reliable. Due to their compact size, computers became
available for personal use during the fourth generation.
•Besides, high-level programming languages such as C, C ++, DBASE, etc. were
used in computers of this generation. Time-sharing, network-based,
distributed operating systems were also used in computers of this generation.
•The IBM-5100, Altair-8800, and Micral are the most popular computers of the
fourth generation computers. Other examples include PDP-11, DEC-10, IBM-
4341, STAR-1000, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP etc.
Advantages of the Fourth Generation Computers
•Due to the compact size, the computer became widely available for
commercial and personal use. It also led to the revolutionary use of
personal computers (PCs).
•Fourth-generation computers were faster, smaller, reliable, more energy-
efficient than their predecessors. Also, fourth-generation computers had
more storage availability.
•The amount of heat in fourth-generation computers was greatly reduced.
The heat produced was almost negligible and hence the air conditioner
system was no longer needed.

Disadvantages of the Fourth Generation Computers

•The construction of VLSI circuits, and microprocessors, was complex and
required highly sophisticated technology and advanced technical skills.
•A cooling fan was included in computers instead of an air conditioning
system. These cooling fans made noises with intense use of computers.
Fourth-generation computers still used integrated circuits and therefore
high technical skills were required to construct and assemble these ICs.
Fifth Generation (1990 to till),
ULSI Technology based
 Fifth Generation (1980 to Present)
•Fifth-generation computers are based on ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, AI (artificial intelligence) software, and parallel processing
hardware.
•Now, about ten million electronic devices can be assembled on a single
microprocessor chip.
•On the other hand, AI is helping computers to react efficiently against natural
languages.
•The fifth-generation period is believed to have started in 1980 and is continuing.
This means that the current generation is the fifth generation of computers.
•Fifth-generation computers are still using integrated circuits to meet various
needs. However, the main technology is AI where there is still room for
improvement.
•In the fifth generation, computers are particularly based on logic programming
and massively parallel computing.
•All high-level languages are supported in this generation. Some such
languages include C, C ++, Java, .NET, etc.
•Common examples of fifth-generation computers are Desktop, Laptop,
Notebook, Chromebook, Ultrabook, Tablet, etc.
Advantages of the Fifth Generation Computers
•Fifth-generation computers are available in different sizes and they can now fit on the palm
as well.
•Computers have become so fast that they can handle multitasking easily. Also, if the data
given by the user is correct, then fifth generation computers are almost 100% accurate in
calculations.
•With the use of AI in the fifth generation, computers have become so smart that they can
understand human language and recognize pictures of individuals and things. However, all
these data are input on the computer or they do so with the help of the internet. They do
not have the ability to think as human beings.

Disadvantages of the Fifth Generation Computers

•With advanced features and accuracy, computers have also replaced humans in various
fields, increasing unemployment. They are also ruining humans' ability to think and learn.
•Due to the widespread use of computers in the fifth generation, the amount of wastage of
computers and their parts is increasing significantly. It negatively affects the environment.
•Computers have also become a threat to personal use and businesses as there are various
types of cybercrimes that can cause damage to personal details as well as financial losses.
•
.
Block Diagram of Computer
A Block diagram of a computer displays a structural representation of a
computer system. The block diagram gives you a quick overview of the
working process of a computer from inputting the data to retrieving the
desired results.

A computer system is a combination of three components:

Input Unit
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 Input Unit
These devices are used to input information or instruction into the
computer system. Therefore, the input unit is the medium of
communication that takes data from us to the computer in an
organized manner for processing.
The Input Unit performs the following major functions:
• The input unit converts the inputted data or instructions into
binary form for further processing.
• Input Unit transmits the data to the main memory of the
computer.
 Central Processing Unit
• The Central Processing Unit performs the following major functions:
• The CPU controls all components, software and data processing of
the computer system. The CPU takes data from input devices,
executes the data, and sends output to the output devices.
• The CPU processes all the operations, including all the arithmetical
and logical operations.
• It processes all the operations (e.g., arithmetic and logical
operations) of the computer. In other words, all the major
calculations, operations or comparisons are performed inside the
CPU. It is also responsible for handling the operations of several
other units.
• In the above diagram, the Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic & Logic
Unit (ALU) are jointly called the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
 Control Unit
• As the name suggests, the control unit of a CPU controls all the
activities and operations of the computer. It is also responsible
for controlling input/output, memory, and other devices
connected to the CPU.

• The control unit acts like the supervisor which determines the
sequence in which computer programs and instructions are
executed. It retrieves instructions from memory, decodes the
instructions, interprets the instructions and understands the
sequence of tasks to be performed accordingly. It further
transmits the instructions to the other parts of the computer
system to execute them. In short, the control unit determines
the sequence of operations to execute the given instructions.
 Arithmetic & Logical Unit
It performs arithmetic and logical operations.
• The arithmetic unit controls simple operations such as
addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication.

• On the other side, the logical unit controls the logical operations
such as AND, OR, Equal, greater than, and less than, etc.
Apart from it, the logic unit also responsible for performing
several other operations such as comparing, selecting, matching,
and merging data.

• The information or data is transmitted to ALU from the storage

unit only when it is required. After completing the operations,
the result is either returned to the storage unit for further
processing or getting stored.
• Memory Unit
• Memory Unit is an essential part of the computer system which is
used to store data and instructions before and after processing.
The memory unit transmits the information to other units of the
computer system when required.
• There are two types of memory units:
• Primary Memory
• The primary memory usually stores the input data and immediate
calculation results. The primary memory is also known as the
Main Memory or temporary memory. Random Access
Memory (RAM) is an example of primary memory.
• Secondary Memory
• The use of primary memory is not possible to store data
permanently for future access. Therefore, there are some other
options to store the data permanently for future use, which is
known as secondary memory or auxiliary storage or
permanent storage. The data stored in the secondary memory is
 Output Unit
• The output unit consists of devices that are used to display
the results or output of processing. The output data is first
stored in the memory and then displayed in human-
readable form through output devices. Some of the widely
used output devices are Monitor, Printer, and Projector.

The Output Unit performs the following major functions:

• The output unit accepts the data or information in binary
form from the main memory of the computer system.
• The output unit converts the binary data into a human-
readable form for better understanding.
 Summary
• The set of data or instruction is entered through input
devices in the form of raw data or binary data.
• The instruction is processed with the help of the central
processing unit, the combination of a control unit and the
arithmetic & logic unit.
• The computer system produces the output with the help
of output devices, which converts retrieved binary data
into human-readable form.
• Throughout the entire process, the data is stored in the
memory unit, either primary or secondary, depending on
the size of the data.
INPUT DEVICES
KEYBOARD
MOUSE
JOYSTICK
TRACKBALL
OUTPUT DEVICES
 MEMORY
• Memory is an essential part of the computer system
because a computer cannot process any task without it.
• Memory is used to store data and instructions for
performing specific tasks on the computer system.
• The computer memory is typically a storage space that is
capable of storing and fetching data.
• Memory is a set of several memory cells known as the
building blocks of memory. Each memory cell has a unique
address.
CLASSIFICATION OF MEMORY
INTERNAL MEMORY (PRIMARY MEMORY)
.
Internal memory usually refers to the chips or modules that are
directly connected to the motherboard. The following are the
available internal memories used in the computer system:

 RAM
• RAM is an acronym of ‘Random Access Memory’. It
constitutes the internal memory of the CPU (Central Processing
Unit) for storing the given instructions and immediate results.
It is also known as read-write memory.
• RAM is a primary-volatile memory as the data is lost when we
turn off (Switch off or Shut down) the computer or there is a
power failure.
• RAM is small in size and comparatively faster than most of the
available computer memories. But, it is not as fast a registers.
RAM can be further divided into the following two subcategories:
.

a) SRAM
SRAM stands for ‘Static Random Access Memory’. It stores the data in a
static form which means that the data remains in the memory as long as
the computer system is on. SRAM is faster and more expensive than
DRAM. It uses a matrix of six transistors and no capacitors. As the
transistors do not need the power to prevent leakage, hence, there is no
requirement to refresh SRAM again and again.
.

b) DRAM
DRAM stands for ‘Dynamic Random Access Memory'. DRAM is widely
used in computer systems. Previously, there was a single data rate (SDR)
DRAM in computers. At present, computers are using a dual data rate
(DDR) DRAM. DDR is also available in different versions such as DDR2,
DDR3, and DDR4, which are more energy-efficient and are providing
better performance.
.

DRAM is cheap, small and uses less power than other RAMs. DRAM is
made up of a transistor and a capacitor in each cell. Because of a
capacitor, it has a leakage problem. Therefore, DRAM requires constant
refreshing.
ROM
• ROM is an acronym of ‘Read Only Memory’. As the name
suggests, the data cannot normally be written to it. However, the
data can be read from this type of memory.
• ROM is a primary-non-volatile memory which means that it is
capable of retaining the data in the memory even if there is no
power supply.
• ROM is a very fast type of computer memory that stores
instructions required to start the computer as soon as it is
connected to the power source. When a computer is connected to
the power, the CPU starts reading the instructions stored in
ROM.
• It does not require support from drivers or any other complex
software to load the necessary parts of the operating system in
the primary memory.
• After that, the computer system boots up and becomes ready to
be used. The entire operation is referred to as ‘bootstrap’ and the
instructions that ROM contains are called ‘bootstrap code’.
ROM can be further divided into the following subcategories:

a) MROM
MROM stands for ‘Masked Read Only Memory’. MROM is a type
of memory whose contents are pre-programmed with specific
functional data by the integrated circuit manufacturer.

b) PROM
PROM stands for ‘Programmable Read-Only Memory'. As the
name suggests, these types of memory are programmable, which
means that they can be coded or programmed by the manufacture.
PROM can be programmed enters the set of programs or codes
using a PROM programmer. The data or instructions cannot be
changed or erased once they are written.
c) EPROM
EPROM stands for ‘Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory’. It is an upgraded version of PROM. Unlike PROM,
EPROM allows users to erase the stored data as well as rewrite the
data. The data stored in EPROM can be erased by passing
ultraviolet light for a particular length of time using an EPROM
eraser.
.

d) EEPROM
EEPROM stands for ‘Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-
Only Memory’. As the name suggests, this type of memory is
programmed and erased electrically. Both programming and
erasing of data takes around 4 to 10 milliseconds. EEPROM can be
erased and reprogrammed for around ten thousand times.
EEPROM can be erased 1 byte at a time, rather than erasing the
entire memory at once. Therefore, the entire process is flexible but
slow.
Note: RAM and ROM are known as the Primary Memory or Main
Memory.
 Cache Memory
• Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory that
is used to store instances of programs and data frequently
accessed by the CPU.
• It provides faster data storage and access to the CPU. Therefore,
when the CPU requests the data and programs, they are quickly
transferred from cache memory, so the CPU can access them
instantly.
• CPU does not require accessing the primary memory or the hard
disk to fetch the data.
•
• Cache memory generally lies in between CPU and the primary
memory (RAM) and it acts as a buffer between CPU and RAM.
Cache memory is costlier than the primary memory; however, it
saves time and increases efficiency.
•
There are following types of Cache memory:
Level 1 or Register Cache

Level 1 or L1 cache is defined as the Primary cache because it is a register in the

computer microprocessor. It is also called CPU cache or Register cache.
Depending on the CPU, the size of the L1 cache may lie in between 2KB
to 64KB. The cache controller initially checks for the instructions on the L1 cache
when CPU requests for the information from memory.
Level 2 or Cache
Level 2 or L2 cache is capable of storing more data as compared to the L1 cache.
But, it is not as fast as the L1 cache. L2 cache can store around 64KB to 2MB
cache. It is located on the CPU or between CPU and DRAM (Main memory).
When the CPU does not receive the necessary instructions on the L1 cache, it
starts looking into the L2 cache.

Level 3 or Main Memory Cache

Level 3 or L3 cache is an enhanced type of memory available on the motherboard
of the computer. L3 cache is capable of storing more data compared to both L1
and L2, but, slower in speed. L3 cache is defined as an extra cache built into the
motherboard between the CPU and the main memory to speed up the entire
processing operation.

In multicore CPU systems, each core may have separate L1 and L2, but all cores
 Virtual Memory
.

• Virtual memory is an area of a secondary memory (e.g., hard disk drive

or solid-state drive) that is configured to act as if it were a part of the
computer's RAM.
• The main benefit of using this method is that the programs can be
larger than physical memory.
.

For example, when a user runs an application on a computer system, the

data is stored in the primary memory (RAM). As the primary memory is
fast, the CPU quickly accesses the data and start the application quickly.
When a user runs a heavy application or when many applications are run
at once, the system’s primary memory may become full. In such cases, the
data stored in the primary memory which is not being used is temporarily
transferred to the virtual memory. It frees up space in the primary
memory which is further used by the system to provide smooth
performance.
.

Virtual memory serves following two purposes:

• It allows us to add more physical memory by using a disk.
• It allows us to add memory protection as each virtual address is
translated to a physical address.
 External Memory
• External memory is usually a kind of memory that is attached to the
computer system separately. External memory is also known as
‘Secondary Memory’ or ‘Auxiliary Memory’.
• These are used to store the data permanently. CPU does not directly
access these types of memory.
• The data is first transferred to the primary memory and then the CPU
can access it. This is because the secondary memory is not as fast as
primary memory.

Note: The use of secondary storage is not mandatory. Embedded

computers, such as those used in a washing machine or central heating
system, do not require saving any data when the power is turned off. The
instructions required to run such computers are stored in read-only
memory (ROM).

The following are the available external memories used in the computer
system:
 Magnetic Storage Devices

 Magnetic storage devices are coated with magnetic material.

 The data is encoded on the magnetic material in the form of electric
current. Magnetic devices use magnetic fields to magnetize tiny
individual sections of a metal spinning disk.
 Each tiny magnetized section represents a binary ONE (1) and each
demagnetized section represents a binary ZERO (0). These tiny
sections can contain terabytes (TB) of data.
 These devices are cheap, fast in performance, high in capacity, and
durable.
 Hard disk drive, magnetic tape, and floppy disks are widely used
magnetic storage devices.
 Solid State Storage Devices
Solid-state storage devices are made up of silicon microchips. These are
non-volatile storage devices, which use integrated circuit assemblies as
memory to continuously store any information. It can hold the data even
after the computer is switched off. These are used as external secondary
storage.
• The main advantage of solid-state devices is that it has no moving parts.
Due to this, they are portable, produce less heat and last longer.
• Solid-state storage devices are comparatively faster than the
traditional hard disk drives, as the data is stored electrically in silicon
chips known as cells.
• The binary data is kept within the cells by holding an electrical
current in a transistor with an On/Off mode. RAM uses the same
technique; however, it does not retain the data after the power is disconnected. Unlike
RAM, solid-state devices have the ability to store the data even after the power is
disconnected. This is possible through the use of a technology known as
flash memory.
• Solid-state drives (SSD) and USB (Universal Serial Bus) memory sticks
or USB flash drive are examples of solid storage devices. Most modern
devices are using solid-state storage devices to deliver better and
 Optical Storage Devices
• The data stored in optical storage devices can be read/write with the
help of the laser beam.
• These devices contain spinning disc made from metal and plastic. The
surface of a spinning disc is scanned by a laser beam.
• The surface is divided into tracks, and each track contains several flat
areas and hollows.
• The flat areas are called ‘lands’ whereas the hollows are called ‘pits’.
Optical storage devices can store a large amount of data.
• Optical storage devices include CD-ROM (Compact Disc, read-only-
memory), DVD-ROM (Digital versatile disc, read- only-memory)
 MEMORY UNIT
Expressed in terms of Kilo Byte, Mega Byte, & Giga Byte
etc.
1 Nibble = 4 Bits
1Byte = 8 Bits
1 Kilo Byte (KB) = 1024 Bytes
1 Mega Byte (MB) = 1024 Kilo Bytes
= 10,48,576 Bytes
1 Giga Byte (GB) = 1024 Mega Bytes
= 1,07,37,41,824 Bytes
1 Tera Byte (TB) = 1024 Giga Bytes
= 10,99,51,16,27,776
Bytes |
Computer Port : The interface between the computer
and other computers or peripheral devices is called
computer ports. In computer terms, a port generally
refers to the female part of connection.
DVI PORT
MODEM PORT
POWER CONNECTOR
PATA AND SATA PORT
ETHERNET PORT
HDMI PORT
GAME PORT
FIREWIRE PORT
BIOS
Serial ATA (SATA, abbreviated from Serial
Advance Technology T Attachment)[2] is a
computer bus interface that connects host bus adapters
to mass storage devices such as hard disk drives,
optical drives, and solid-state drives.
Parallel ATA (PATA), originally AT Attachment, is
an interface standard for the connection of storage
devices such as hard disk drives, floppy disk drives,
and optical disc drives in computers.
A front-side bus (FSB) was a computer communication
interface (bus) often used in Intel-chip-based computers
during the 1990s and 2000s. The competing EV6 bus
served the same function for AMD CPUs. Both typically
carry data between the central processing unit (CPU)
and a memory controller hub, known as the Northbridge.
BIOS (basic input/output system) is the program a personal
computer's microprocessor uses to get the computer system
started after you turn it on. It also manages data flow between the
computer's operating system and attached devices such as the
hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse and printer.
CMOS. ... Alternatively referred to as a Real-Time Clock
(RTC), Non-Volatile RAM (NVRAM) or CMOS RAM, CMOS
is short for Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor.
CMOS is an on-board, battery powered semiconductor chip
inside computers that stores information.
Cooling & Protection : The components which
are is required to remove the waste heat
produced by computer components, to keep
components within permissible
operating temperature limits.