07 Basic Statistics Concept

BASIC STATISTICS
Levels of Measurement
Knowing the level of measurement helps you decide how to interpret the
data from that variable.
Second, knowing the level of measurement helps you decide what

statistical analysis is appropriate on the values that were assigned.
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Nominal
The numerical values just "name" the attribute uniquely. No ordering of

the cases is implied. For example, jersey numbers in basketball are
measures at the nominal level. A player with number 30 is not more of
anything than a player with number 15, and is certainly not twice
whatever number 15 is.
i.e.
Sex
Ethnic
Program
Ordinal
The attributes can be rank-ordered. However, distances between attributes do

not have any meaning.
For example, on a survey you might code Educational Attainment as
1= Primary
2= Secondary
3= Diploma
4= Degree
5= Masters
Is distance from 1 to 2 the same as 3 to 4?
The interval between values is not interpretable in an ordinal measure.

Interval
The standard survey rating scale is an interval scale.When you are

asked to rate your satisfaction with a piece of software on a 5 point
scale, from Highly Not Satisfied to Highly Satisfied, you are using
an interval scale.
Eg
1. Highly Not Satisfied

2. Not Satisfied
3. Moderate
4. Satisfied
5. Highly Satisfied
Ratio
There is always an absolute zero that is meaningful. This means that you can
construct a meaningful fraction (or ratio) with a ratio variable.
Weight is a ratio variable. In applied social research most "count" variables are
ratio, for example, the number of clients in past six months.
Why? Because you can have zero clients and because it is meaningful to say
that "...we had twice as many clients in the past six months as we did in the
previous six months."
It's important to recognize that there is a hierarchy implied in the
level of measurement idea.
At lower levels of measurement, assumptions tend to be less

restrictive and data analysis tend to be less sensitive.
At each level up the hierarchy, the current level includes all of the
qualities of the one below it and adds something new.
In general, it is desirable to have a higher level of measurement

(e.g., interval or ratio) rather than a lower one (nominal or
ordinal).
Types of data
Categorical
Sex
1. Male
2. Female
Continuous
Depression Scale
Attitudes Towards Sports Scale
Reliability and Validity
Reliability
Reliability in psychological measurement can have one of two different

but related, meanings.
The first meaning of reliability is internal consistency, that is the

extent to which all parts of a measure are measuring the same thing.
The second meaning of reliability is stability over time, that is the

extent to which the measure is likely to change over time.
Must be clear about which one of these definitions you are referring to
when using the word reliability.
Reliability
Internal consistency concerns the extent to which different

parts of a test are measuring the same thing.
Coefficient (Cronbach’s) Alpha

.7 - .8 > Very good
.5 - .6 > Average (except when items under 10 - acceptable)
.3 - .5 > Low
Reliability
The second meaning of reliability is stability over time.
If we measure people on an attitude test, and we measure them

all 3 months later, unless something dramatic has happened in
the meantime, we would expect them all to have broadly similar
attitude scores.
If their scores had changed, it might suggest to us that the

measure was not measuring a stable attitude at all, but instead
had been measuring a transient mood, or something else that
was easily changed by circumstances.
Validity
While reliability is concerned with the accuracy of the actual
measuring instrument or procedure, validity is concerned with the
study's success at measuring what the researchers set out to
measure.
Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to

measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to
be accurately applied and interpreted.
Construct validity
Content validity
Face validity
Criterion validity
Validity
Construct validity refers to whether a scale measures or correlates with
a theorized construct
Example?
What are the criteria for mate selection?
I like pious partner

I like rich partner
I like tall partner
I like successful partner
How to test: Commonly use EFA

Validity
Content validity
A non-statistical type of validity
Items on the test represent the entire range of possible items the test should
cover. Individual test questions may be drawn from a large pool of items that
cover a broad range of topics.
When a test measures a trait that is difficult to define, an expert judge may rate
each item’s relevance. Because each judge is basing their rating on opinion,
two independent judges rate the test separately.
Items that are rated as strongly relevant by both judges will be included in the
final test.
Validity
Face validity is an estimate of whether a test appears to measure a
certain criterion; it does not guarantee that the test actually measures
phenomena in that domain.
"Content validity should not be confused with face validity. The latter is
not validity in the technical sense; it refers, not to what the test actually
measures, but to what it appears superficially to measure. Face validity
pertains to whether the test "looks valid" to the examinees who take it.
the administrative personnel who decide on its use, and other technically
untrained observers (Anastasi, 1988, p.144)."
A non-professional being asked to determine whether the test is valid or

not. This does not transform face validity into an acceptable validation
strategy.
Validity
Criterion validity is a measure of how well one variable or set of variables
predicts an outcome
Correlating test scores with another established test that also measures the
same characteristic
Two Types :
Concurrent validity is demonstrated where a test correlates well with a

measure that has previously been validated. The two measures may be for the
same construct, or for different, but presumably related, constructs.
Use correlation
Predictive validity is the extent to which a score on a scale predicts scores on

some criterion measure
Do test now, measure later

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BASIC STATISTICS

Second, knowing the level of measurement helps you decide what

The numerical values just "name" the attribute uniquely. No ordering of

The attributes can be rank-ordered. However, distances between attributes do

For example, on a survey you might code Educational Attainment as

Is distance from 1 to 2 the same as 3 to 4?

The interval between values is not interpretable in an ordinal measure.

The standard survey rating scale is an interval scale.When you are

1. Highly Not Satisfied

At lower levels of measurement, assumptions tend to be less

In general, it is desirable to have a higher level of measurement

Reliability in psychological measurement can have one of two different

The first meaning of reliability is internal consistency, that is the

The second meaning of reliability is stability over time, that is the

Internal consistency concerns the extent to which different

Coefficient (Cronbach’s) Alpha

If we measure people on an attitude test, and we measure them

If their scores had changed, it might suggest to us that the

Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to

I like pious partner

How to test: Commonly use EFA

A non-statistical type of validity

A non-professional being asked to determine whether the test is valid or

Concurrent validity is demonstrated where a test correlates well with a

Predictive validity is the extent to which a score on a scale predicts scores on

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