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ch1 Magnetic Circuits

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Elements of electrical engineering (EEC-

22215)
• Examination scheme –
1. Theory(100M) – 1. End semester examination = 70 M
(min- 28M)
2. Progressive assessment = 30M
(10 M – Micro project, 20M- Average of two class test )
2. Practical(50M) – Internal assessment = 25M
External assessment = 25M
Manual Submission = 25M
1. Electric and Magnetic Circuits (08M)

COURSE OUTCOME-
Use principles of magnetic circuits to solve
engineering problems
Technical terms related to electric circuits
1. Current – Rate of flow of electrons is called as
current. Denoted by I. Unit is Ampere (A)
• Alternating current (AC):
An AC is one which periodically passes
through a definite cycle of changes in respect of
magnitude as well as direction.
• Direct current (DC):
The DC is that current which flows
continuously in one direction and has constant
magnitude with respect to time.
A.C. and D.C. quantities
2. Potential difference

• Potential difference is the work done in


moving a unit of positive electric charge from
one point to another.
OR
• The difference in electric potential between
two points in an electric field;

• The symbol for potential difference is V.


3. Electromotive force(EMF)
• The force which causes electrons to move is
called as electromotive force.
• It is the electrical intensity or "pressure"
developed by a source of electrical energy
such as a battery or generator.
• Voltage, also called electromotive force, is a
quantitative expression of the potential
difference in charge between two points in an
electrical field.
4. Power - Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at
which electrical energy is transferred by an
electric circuit.
The SI unit of power is the watt or one
joule per second.
Represented by the letter P.
P = V*I …FOR DC circuits
5. Energy -
E=P*t
where t = time
Electric circuit concept
Electrical circuit
An electric circuit is a path in which electrons from
a electric energy source flow.
Every electric circuit has four basic parts:
1. Electrical Energy Source - a source of electrical energy, AC
(alternating current, used in most homes) or DC (direct
current)
2. Electrical conductors - electrical wires to carry electrical
energy from its source to the point of use
3. Electrical Load - an electrical device that uses energy such as
a light bulb, computer, or electric heater
4. Electrical Switches - controls to turn on or off electrical
energy being supplied to an electrical load or device. In a
home or other building electrical safety devices which
protect the building from unsafe conditions such as a fire or
electrical shock include circuit breakers or fuses which are
really acting as an electrical "switch" to turn off electrical
power should an unsafe condition occur.
Magnetic circuit
Magnetic circuit
• A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop
paths containing a magnetic flux. The flux is usually generated
by permanent magnets or electromagnets and confined to the
path by magnetic cores consisting of ferromagnetic
materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or other
materials in the path.
• Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently
channel magnetic fields in many devices such as electric
motors, generators, transformers, relays,
lifting electromagnets, galvanometers, and
magnetic recording heads.
Technical terms related to magnetic
circuits
1. Magnetic Flux
 The number of magnetic lines of forces set up
in a magnetic circuit is called Magnetic Flux.
It is analogous to electric current I in an
electric circuit.
 Its SI unit is Weber (Wb) and its CGS unit is
Maxwell.
 It is denoted by φ.
2. Flux Density:
 Magnetic flux as flowing from the north pole of a magnet
round to its south pole as shown by the arrows on the lines in
the diagram. Looking at the diagram you should see that there
is as much flux flowing ‘from the north pole’ as there is
‘flowing into the south pole’.
 The amount of magnetic flux flowing through a given area
will change from one point to another around the magnet.
 In position B there are a smaller number of magnetic field
lines passing through the loop than there is when it is in
position A.
 Definition - The amount of flux passing through a unit area at
right angles to the magnetic field lines is called as flux density
(B).
Flux density = Flux / area through which flux passes

B=Φ/A

Flux density is measured in Tesla (T) or Wb/m2


3. Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F.):
 The current flowing in an electric circuit is due to the
existence of electromotive force similarly
magnetomotive force (MMF) is required to drive
the magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit.
 Definition - The magnetic pressure, which sets up the
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called
Magnetomotive Force.
MMF = N*I
Where N= no of turns I = Current flowing in the coil
The unit of MMF is Ampere-turn (AT).
The strength of the MMF is equivalent to the
product of the current around the turns and the
number of turns of the coil.
F = NI
Where, N – numbers of turns of inductive coil
I – current
5. Magnetic Force
• The force exerted on one magnet by another
one ,either of attraction or repulsion is called
the magnetic force.
• According to Coulombs second low force
between two magnetic pole is directly
proportional to product of their pole strengths
and inversely proportional to distance
between them.
• Magnetic force is given by ,
F  m1*m2 / d²
Where , m1 and m2 = pole strength in wb
d = distance between two magnetic poles in
meter

F = m1 * m2 / (4¶ µo µr d² )
F is in newtons
4. Magnetic Field Strength:
The force experienced by a unit north pole
placed at any point in a magnetic field is known
as magnetic field strength at that point.
It is represented by H
It units is newton per weber (N/Wb) or
amperes per meter (A/m) .

H = B/ µ
4. Magnetic field strength (H)

• Magnetic field strength (H) is defined as the


m.m.f. per meter length of magnetic circuit
i.e.,

• Where, N = number of turns of a coil,


• I = current (amperes), and
• l = length of the magnetic circuit tm
Ex. 1.The following data relate to an electromagnet
Total flux = 8 × 10-4 Wb
Cross sectional area of the core = 200 mm2
Number of turns = 100
Magnitude of current = 2 A
Length of the magnetic circuit = 400 mm
Calculate the following:
i. Flux density in the coil,
ii. Magnetomotive force, and
iii. Magnetic field strength.
Solution Total flux, ɸ = 8 × 10-4 Wb
Area of the coil, A = 200 mm2 = 2 × 10-4 m2
Number of turns, N = 100
Current, I = 2A
Length of the magnetic circuit, l = 400 mm = 0.4 m.
i. Flux density in the coil, B :
ii. Magnetomotive force, m.m.f.:
m.m.f. = NI = 100 × 2 = 200 AT. (Ans.)
iii. Magnetic field strength, H:

= 500 AT/M
5. Permeability
• A property of magnetic material which indicates the
ability of magnetic circuit to carry electromagnetic
flux
• It is the ratio of flux density to the magnetic field
strength

• In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per


metre i.e. H·m−1
• Permeability of free space or air or non magnetic
material
6. Relative Permeability (μr):
The ratio of the permeability of a given material
or medium, to the permeability of free space.
μr = μ/μ0.
where μ0 = 4π × 10−7
7. Reluctance:
 Reluctance is the resistance to the flow of magnetic flux in a
magnetic circuit.
 It is denoted by S
S = MMF / Flux
S=F/φ
S= N*I / φ

• Where, l = the length of the conductor


μo= permeability of vacuum.
μr = relative permeability of the material.
A = cross-section area of the conductor.
 Its unit is AT / Wb
8. Permeance
• The reciprocal of the magnetic reluctance is
known as the magnetic permeance. It is given
by the expression
9.Magnetic leakage factor-

• Magnetic circuit :
9.Magnetic leakage factor-
• All the flux lines created by a current carrying coil
may not be confined to the magnetic core
associated with that coil.
• The amount of flux which is perfectly confined in
the magnetic core is known as useful flux.
• The flux may be in very little amount which is not
confined to the magnetic core is known as
leakage flux. This flux is practically useless.
Magnetic leakage factor-

• Definition - The ratio of total flux created by a


current carrying coil to the useful flux,
confined in magnetic core is known as leakage
factor.
B-H Curve or Magnetizing curve
• There is a relationship between magnetic flux density (B) and
magnetising force (H).
• The relationship is B = μ0 μr H.
– Where, μ0 is the absolute permeability of air or free space
and μr magnetic material.
– The relation between magnetic induction density and
magnetic force is partially linear since the relative
permeability of a ferromagnetic material is not constant it
changes with change in magnetic induction density or flux
density.
– The curve represents this relation between induction
density (B) and magnetising force (H) is known as
magnetising curve or B-H curve.
Magnetic Hysteresis
• The phenomenon of flux density B lagging behind the
magnetizing force H in a magnetic material is known
as Magnetic Hysteresis.
• when the magnetic material is magnetized first in one
direction and then in the other direction, completing one
cycle of magnetization, it is found that the flux density B
lags behind the applied magnetization force H.
• There are various types of magnetic materials such as
paramagnetic, diamagnetic, ferromagnetic and anti-
ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic materials are
mainly responsible for the generation of the hysteresis
loop.
• When the magnetic field in not applied the
ferromagnetic material behaves like a paramagnetic
material. This means that at the initial stage the dipole
of the ferromagnetic material is not aligned, they are
randomly placed. As soon as the magnetic field is
applied to the ferromagnetic material, its dipole
moments align themselves in one particular direction as
shown in the above figure, resulting in a much stronger
magnetic field.
Experimental set
up to draw the
hysteresis loop
Hysteresis loop
• For understanding the phenomenon of the magnetic hysteresis,
consider a ring of magnetic material wound uniformly with
solenoid. The solenoid is connected to a DC source through a
Double pole double throw (D.P.D.T) reversible switch as shown
in the figure below.
• Initially, the switch is in position 1. By decreasing the value of
R the value of the current in the solenoid increases gradually
resulting in a gradual increase in field intensity H, the flux
density also increases till it reaches the saturation point a and
the curve obtained is oa. Saturation occurs when on increasing
the current the dipole moment or the molecules of the magnet
material align itself in one direction.
• Now by decreasing the current in the solenoid to zero the
magnetizing force is gradually reduced to zero, but the value of
flux density will not be zero as it still has the value ob when
H=0, so the curve obtained is ab as shown in the figure below.
This value ob of flux density is because of the residual
magnetism.
• Now to demagnetize the magnetic ring, the position of the
D.P.D.T reversible switch is changed to position 2 and thus,
the direction of flow of the current in the solenoid is reversed
resulting in reverse magnetizing force H.
• When H is increased in reverse direction, the flux density
starts decreasing and becomes zero (B=0) and the curve
shown above follows the path bc.
• The residual magnetism of the material is removed by
applying the magnetizing force known as Coercive force in
the opposite direction.
• Now to complete the hysteresis loop the magnetizing force H
is further increased in the reverse direction till it reaches the
saturation point d but in the negative direction, the curve
traces the path cd.
• The value of H is reduced to zero H=0 and the curve obtains
the path de, where oe is residual magnetism when the curve
is in the negative direction.
• The position of the switch is changed to 1 again from the
position 2 and the current in the solenoid is again
increased as done in the magnetization process and due
to this H is increased in the positive direction tracing the
path as efa, and finally the hysteresis loop is complete.
• In the curve again of is the magnetizing force, also
known as the Coercive force required to remove the
residual magnetism oe.
• Here the total Coercive force required to wipe off the
residual magnetism in one complete cycle is denoted by
cf.
• From the above discussion, it is clear that the flux
density B always lags behind the magnetizing force H.
Hence the loop ‘abcdefa’ is called the Magnetic
Hysteresis loop or Hysteresis Curve.
• Residual Magnetism:
The value of flux density when exciting
current and therefore magnetic field strength is
reduced to zero is called remanent or residual
flux density.
• Coercive Force:
The value of the magnetizing force oc
required to wipe out the residual magnetism ob
is called Coercive force.
Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
Path traced by the current is Path traced by the magnetic
known as electric current. flux is called as magnetic
circuit.

MMF is the driving force in the


EMF is the driving force in the magnetic circuit. The unit is
electric circuit. The unit is Volts. ampere turns.

There is a current I in the There is flux φ in the magnetic


electric circuit which is circuit which is measured in the
measured in amperes. weber.

The flow of electrons decides The number of magnetic lines of


the current in conductor. force decides the flux.
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
Reluctance (S) is oppossition
Resistance (R) oppose the flow by magnetic path to the flux.
of the current. The Unit is ampere turn/weber.
The unit is Ohm

S = l/ (μ0μra).
R = ρ. l/a. Directly proportional to l.
Directly proportional to l. Inversely proportional to μ
Inversely proportional to a. = μ0μr.
Depends on nature of material. Inversely proportional to a

The current I = EMF/ Resistance The Flux = MMF/ Reluctance


The current density The flux density
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction

• In 1831, Michael Faraday, an English physicist


gave one of the most basic laws of electro-
magnetism called Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction.
• This law explains the working principle of most
of the electrical motors, generators, electrical
transformers and inductors.
• This law shows the relationship
between electric circuit and magnetic field.
• Faraday performs an experiment with a magnet and a coil.
During his experiment, he found how emf is induced in the
coil when flux linked with it changes.

• From this experiment, Faraday concluded that whenever


there is relative motion between conductor and a magnetic
field, the flux linkage with a coil changes and this change
in flux induces a voltage across a coil.
• Faraday’s First Law:
This law states that whenever the number of
lines of force linking with a circuit changes, an emf
is always induced in it; or whenever a conductor
cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux, an emf is
always generated in it.
• Faraday’s Second Law:
It states that the magnitude of the induced
emf in any circuit is proportional to the rate of
change of its flux linkages (flux x turns); or the
magnitude of the generated emf in any conductor is
proportional to the rate at which it cuts or is cut by
the magnetic flux.
• Magnitude of the Induced EMF:
 If the flux linking with a particular coil having N turns changes from φ1 to φ2
Webers in small time of ‘t’ seconds, then
Rate of change of flux linkages = (Final flux linkage) – (Initial flux linkage)

Time
= Nφ2 – Nφ1
t
 According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced emf (e)
is given by
e ∝ Rate of change of flux linkages
∝ = Nφ2 – Nφ1
t
e = N (φ2 – φ1) Volts
t
where K is the constant of proportionality.
Expressing the above equation in differential form, we get
e = N dφ
dt
Direction of Induced EMF:
• Direction of induced emf is given by following
laws
1. Flemings right hand rule
2. Lenz’s law
1. Fleming Right Hand Rule
 If a conductor is forcefully brought under a magnetic
field, there will be an induced current or EMF in that
conductor. then direction of the induced current or
EMF is given by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
 Statement:
Hold out the right hand with the first finger, second
finger and thumb at right angle to each other. If first
finger represents the direction of magnetic field (N to
S), the thumb points in the direction of motion or
applied force, then second finger points in the
direction of the induced current.
2.Lenz’s Law
• Lenz's law states that the direction of induced emf
during the process of electromagnetic induction is
always such that it will set up a current to oppose the
basic cause responsible for inducing the emf.
• The negative sign used in
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, indicates
that the induced emf and the change in
magnetic flux have opposite signs.
Explanation of Lenz's Law
CASE-I When a magnet is moving towards the coil.

CASE-II When a magnet is moving away from the coil


Types of induced EMF

• Nature of Induced EMF:


 An Electromotive Force or EMF is said to be
induced when the flux linking with a
conductor or coil changes.
 This change in flux can be obtained in two
different ways; that is by statically or
by dynamically induced emf.
Types of induced EMF
1.DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF:
 In dynamically induced emf the magnetic
field system is kept stationary, and the
conductor is moving, or the magnetic field
system is moving, and the conductor is
stationary thus by following either of the two
process the conductor cuts across the magnetic
field and the emf is induced in the coil.
 This phenomenon takes place in electric
generators and back emf of motors and also in
transformers.
• Magnitude of Dynamically Induced EMF:
 We can see from the figure that a conductor A is
lied within a uniform magnetic field whose flux
density is B Wb.
 In this fig. the movement of the conductor is shown
by arrow line. When the conductor A cuts across at
right angles to the flux.
 Let, ‘l’= Length of the conductor lying within the
field. And it moves a distance dx in time dt,
 So, the area swept by the conductor is =ldx. Hence,
flux cut by the conductor = l.dx X B, Change in
Flux = B.l.dx weber, Time= dt second
 According to Faraday’s laws. The e.m.f induced
in the conductor . And this induced e.m.f is
known as dynamically induced e.m.f.

 If the conductor (A) moves at an angle θ with


the direction of flux which is shown in (b).
2. STATICALLY INDUCED EMF:
 This type of EMF is generated by keeping the coil and the
magnetic field system, both of them stationary at the same
time; that means the change in flux linking with the coil takes
place without either moving the conductor (coil) or the field
system.
 This change of flux produced by the field system linking with
the coil is obtained by changing the electric current in the field
system.
 It is further divided in two ways
1. Self-induced emf - emf which is induced in the coil due to the
change of flux produced by it linking with its own turns.
2. Mutually induced emf - emf which is induced in the coil due to
the change of flux produced by another coil, linking with it.
A) Self Induced EMF:
 Self-induced e.m.f is the e.m.f which is produced in the coil
due to the change of its own flux linked with it. If the current
of the coil is changed, then the flux linked with its own turns
will also change which will produce an e.m.f that is called self-
induced e.m.f.
 Consider a coil having N number of turns as shown in the above
figure. When the switch S is closed and current I flows through
the coil, it produces flux (φ) linking with its own turns. If the
current flowing through the coil is changed by changing the value
of variable resistance (R), the flux linking with it, changes and
hence emf is induced in the coil. This induced emf is called Self
Induced emf.
 The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes its vary
own cause which produces it, that means it opposes the change of
current in the coil. This effect is because of the Lenz’s Law.
Self induced EMF
Magnitude of Self Induced EMF
The magnitude of self induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of
change of current in the coil. L is constant of proportionality and called as
Self Inductance or the Coefficient of Self Inductance or Inductance of the
coil.
SELF INDUCTANCE
• Inductance (L)– Inductance of the coil is defined as
the property of the coil due to which it opposes the
change of current flowing through it.

• where,
N – number of turns in the coil
Φ – magnetic flux
I – current flowing through the coil
The unit of inductance is Henry (H).
B) Mutually Induced EMF:
 The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by
another neighbouring coil linking to it, is called Mutually Induced
emf.
 Consider a coil A and B. Coil B is having N2 number of turns and is
placed near another coil A having N1 number of turns as shown in the
figure below.
 When the switch (S) is closed in the circuit shown above current
I1 flows through the coil A, and it produces the fluxφ 1. Most of the
flux says φ2 links with the other coil B.
 If the current flowing through the coil A is changed by changing the
value of variable resistor R, it changes flux linking with the other
coil B and hence emf is induced in the coil. This induced emf is
called Mutually Induced emf.
 The direction of the induced emf is such that it
opposes the cause which produces it, that means
it opposes the change of current in the first coil.
This effect of opposition caused by its own reason
of production is called Lenz’s Law.
 A galvanometer (G) is connected to the coil B for
measuring the induced emf.
• Magnitude of mutually Induced EMF:
 Let, N1 = Number of turns of coil A
N2 = Number of turns of coil B
I1 = Current flowing through coil A
Φ1 = Flux producing due to current I1 in webers.
Φ2 = Flux linking with coil B
 According to Faraday’s law, the induced e.m.f in coil B is,
E2 = -N2 (dΦ2/dt)
 Negative sign indicates that this e.m.f. will set up a current which will oppose
the change of flux likning with it.
Now Φ2 = Φ2/I1 x I1
 If permeability of the surrounds is assumed constant then Φ2 ∝ I1 and hence
Φ2/I1 is constant.
∴ Rate of change of Φ2 = (Φ2/I1) x Rate of change of current I1
∴ dΦ2/dt = (Φ2/I1) x (dI1/dt)
E2 = -N2 x ( Φ2/I1) x (dI1/dt)
E2 = - (N2 Φ2/I1) (dI1/dt)
 Here (N2 Φ2/I1) is called coefficient of mutual inductance denoted by M.
E = -M(dI /dt) Volts
Mutual Inductance
• Mutual Inductance between the two coils is
defined as the property of the coil due to
which it opposes the change of current in the
other coil.

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