Grammar 3, Phrases

Grammar III
Semester 3
Prof. El Azzouzi
m.elazzouzi@uae.ac.ma
Course content
 Phrases
◦ Noun Phrases
◦ Verb Phrases
◦ Prepositional Phrases
 Clauses and Sentences
◦ Simple sentences
◦ Compound sentences
◦ Complex sentences
◦ Compound-complex sentences
 Non-finite clauses
◦ Gerunds and gerund clauses
◦ Infinitive clauses
◦ Participles and participle clauses
 Subordinate clauses
◦ Nominal clauses
◦ Adjective clauses
◦ Adverbial clauses
Phrases
What is a phrase?
 A phrase is a group of words that function as a unit. It has

a central word (called a head); other words modify the
meaning of the head. In this unit, we’ll be looking at three
major phrases in English: the noun phrase, the verb
phrase, and the prepositional phrase.
I. The Noun Phrase (NP)
A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually
modifiers and determiners) which come after or before the noun.
 1. Types of NPs:
NP → N (A noun phrase may consist of a single noun in isolation):
 Birds fly.
 Insects are invertebrate.
 NP → Determiner+N
the sun
an elephant
these pens
four students
which book (interrogative determiner)
many mistakes
first place
 NP → Det + Adjective + N
- These difficult rules
- A beautiful poem
 NP → Det + N + PP
- The shop in the corner
- A visitor from Essex
 NP → Det + N + Clause
- I thanked the man [Clause who/that helped me] (finite relative clause)
- People believed the rumour [Clause that the prisoners had escaped]. (complement to the noun
“rumour”)
- The teachers [Clause invited to the meeting] didn’t show up. (non finite relative clause)
- Students [Clause working late at night] are tired during the day.
- The first people [Clause to settle in America] came from Europe.
 Verbal expressions ending in –ing (gerunds) can function as noun phrases:
- Playing tennis is fun.
- Practicing everyday is necessary.
 Infinitives may also function as nominals:
- To err is human.
2. Functions of NPs
 Subject:
Several people saw the accident.
The refreshments are outside.
 Subject complement: (the complement refers back to the subject)
She was a nurse.
He felt a fool.
 Direct object:
Elephants eat plants.
They watched the exhibition.
 Object complement: (the complement refers back to the object)
We elected him team leader.
My cousin named his daughter Mary.
 Indirect object:
- The teacher loaned the student the book.
- He bought his wife a present.
 Object of a preposition:
- The biscuits on the table are for the dog.
- Sit near him.
 Noun phrase modifier:
- The carpenter fixed the broken [NP table leg.]
- We reserved two [NP hotel rooms.]
 Appositive:
- The dining table, a modern piece of furniture, stood near the window.
- Mark Baker, an imminent linguist, teaches at Rutgers University.
In both examples, the underlined noun phrase provides extra-but nonessential-
information about the noun coming before it.
 Adverbial!
- I didn’t sleep well last night. (when?)
- We decided to go home. (where?)
 Exercise: Identify the Head in each of the following
bracketed noun phrases
1. [ Cats] make very affectionate pets

2. [The editor] rejected the manuscript
3. We drove through [an enormous forest] in Germany
4. [People who cycle] get very wet
5. 5. We really enjoy [the funny stories he tells]
6. [those who arrive late] cannot be admitted until the
interval.
7. [Two of my guests] have arrived.
8. [The first to arrive] was John.
9. [The difference between these two solutions] has been further analysed
by Hoenselaers and Ernst (1990).
10. This would be pointless since the State was not [the main cause of the
unjust social system] but simply its effect.
11. By comparison, [the number of deaths recorded as criminal homicide] was
600, which includes all the murders and manslaughters.
12. As a result of [exposure to the arguments of the Greek sceptics], many
would have felt that the question, whether they or the so-called ancients
were better placed to acquire knowledge, did not arise.
13. The position here advocated is the traditional view which regards an
obligation to obey as a result of [a special relationship between an
individual and his state].
14. Toacknowledge any such standard would be to accept [a
principle that might lead to a lesser religious or other liberty], if
not to a loss of freedom altogether to advance many of one's
spiritual ends.
15. Some people may feel that Rawls' original position is already [a
description of a process of compromise], of settling for the
second best.
16. Anthropology thus played [a central role in the development of
Marxism].
Exercise: locate the noun phrases and identify the heads
 After lunch it would be my job to run to the top of the drive

and undo the rope that held the five-bar gate to its post.
 And suddenly this huge crowd get to support the national
team.
 If you live alone you are the one who completes the form
 One of the hardest tasks on a winter morning is leaving the
comfort of warm blankets.
 The classified section in our newspaper provides advertising
for most of the town’s small businesses.
 Parking meters were first used in Oklahoma City to regulate
parking time for vehicles.
II. The Verb Phrase (VP)
 . Types of VPs
• VP → V
John laughed.
My key has disappeared.
• VP → V+NP
John likes grammar.
They destroyed the city.
• VP → V+PP
John knocked on the door.
We are waiting for Alice.
NB. Some verbs in English require a PP complement, e.g. look at, wait for, hope for,
send for, rely on, stare at, decide on, take off (clothes), knock on, etc. These are
called prepositional transitive verbs.
• VP → V+NP+NP
John bought Mary a laptop.
I teach you Grammar III.
• VP → V+NP+PP
John sent an sms to Mary.
She bought a tie for her husband.
• VP → V+Clause (the clause may be finite or nonfinite)
John thinks that linguistics is interesting.
John wants to become a lawyer.
John tried to help Mary.

• VP → V+NP+Clause (here, too, the clause may be
finite or nonfinite)
John told his friends that he would pay for the drinks.
John asked his teacher to repeat the question.
Identify the verb phrases in the following
sentences:
 Melissa will wait for the taxi at the corner
I am becoming very tired of Chinese food
 Jasmine has received a coupon for a free pizza
 Tom is feeding some water to the thirsty dog
 The bicycle was held to the rack with a chain.
 The horse can carry us both up the mountain on its
back.
 James told his father that he had to run in order to
catch the bus
 The men will dig a deep hole for the new swimming
pool
 Mrs. Foster is going to take all of us to the theater
 These gloves will keep your hands very warm
 Sarah had to grab her dog before it ran away
III. The Prepositional Phrase (PP)
Prepositions are words which serve to connect words (usually nouns) to other
parts of the sentence.
The Prepositional Phrase consists of a preposition and its object(s), including
modifiers of the object.
1. Form
• PP→ P+NP
I came across my friend in the street.
They went to the beach.
The government will hold a debate about taxes and expenditures
• PP→ P+ Pronoun
Don’t give it to her.
We rely on them.
• PP→ P+wh-clause (the wh-clause may be finite or
nonfinite)
We can’t live on [what they pay us].
They argued about [how to fix the problem].

• PP→ P+gerund
This itch gets worse by scratching.
You can succeed by working hard.
2. Functions of PPs
Prepositional phrases perform three formal functions in sentences.
They can act as an adjective modifying a noun, as an adverb modifying a
verb, or as a nominal.
 PPs functioning as Adjectives

We designed the building across the street. (which building)
Please hand me the pen next to the telephone. (which pen)
In the above sentences, the italicised prepositional phrases modify the nouns building and
pen.
A prepositional phrase can modify the object in another prepositional phrase:

The applause from one group in the lecture hall quickly spread.
 PPs functioning as Adverbs
She read the novel in the attic. (place/ where)
The old lady fell on the steps. (place/ where)
He usually sits by that window. (place/ where)
We’ll have class at two o’clock. (time/ when)
We’ll meet at the weekend. (time/ when)
I’ll state the problem in simple English. (manner/ how)
He speaks in clear terms. (manner/ how)
She was killed with a pistol. (instrument)
 PPs functioning as Nominals
After lunch is a good time to relax.
We must clean behind the fridge.
NB. Many prepositions we use are single words, e.g. at, for, in, of, on,
under, etc. There are also prepositions made up of two or three
words. These complex prepositions act in the same way as simple
prepositions. Below is a list of some complex prepositions in English.
 Two-word prepositions: according to, as for, because of, due to,

except for, ahead of, apart from, as per, instead of, irrespective of,
out of, owing to, prior to, regardless of.
 Three-word prepositions: in accordance with, in addition to, with

reference to, in spite of, in view of, by virtue of, in connection with,
in return for, on account of, on behalf of, with regard to.
Exercise: Locate the prepositional phrases in each sentence
 Aftertwenty minutes, the books near the table
by the door fell into a heap onto the floor.
 Before the sun rose on the horizon, she saw a
ray of light through the opening in the mine
shaft.
 The
workers at Minny's hat shop ate in the
employee cafeteria over the main store.
 Whatdo you think about my recent purchases
from Bloomberg's?
 Between you and me, no one except Ralph has
been in touch since yesterday.
 Who was standing in the front of the moon?
 On the following morning, we hunted for the lost
wallet
 The car with the whitewall tires belongs to my brother.
 The sum of these numbers is the answer to the
problem.
 During the month of January, the ice beneath the new
layer of snow was especially treacherous.
 Theinstructions must be followed throughout the
semester without exception.
I gave the same speech to everyone within a five-mile
radius of the accident.

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Grammar III

 A phrase is a group of words that function as a unit. It has

1. [ Cats] make very affectionate pets

 After lunch it would be my job to run to the top of the drive

• VP → V+Clause (the clause may be finite or nonfinite)

John thinks that linguistics is interesting.

John wants to become a lawyer.

John tried to help Mary.

We can’t live on [what they pay us].

They argued about [how to fix the problem].

 PPs functioning as Adjectives

A prepositional phrase can modify the object in another prepositional phrase:

 Two-word prepositions: according to, as for, because of, due to,

 Three-word prepositions: in accordance with, in addition to, with

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