CHEMISTRY

INTRODUCTION TO
CHEMISTRY
Chemistry
• Chemistry is the study of matter – its properties, composition,
structure, and the changes that it undergoes.
• Matter is anything that has volume (amount of space that something
occupies) and mass (amount of material that something has).
Major Branches of Chemistry
• Physical chemistry is concerned with the principles of physics in chemistry.
It uses the mathematical theories and applications in physics in explaining
chemical changes.
• Organic Chemistry is concerned with carbon-containing compounds, also
known as organic compounds.
• Inorganic Chemistry is concerned with materials without carbon (with few
exceptions)
• Analytical Chemistry is concerned with the qualitative and quantitative
detection, identification, and analysis of matter.
• Biochemistry is concerned with the principles of biology in chemistry. It is
the study of chemistry of living systems.
States of Matter
SOLID LIQUID GAS
Definite volume Definite volume Indefinite volume
Definite shape Indefinite shape Indefinite shape
Practically Very incompressible Compressible
incompressible
Have closely packed Have molecules can Have molecules
molecules slide with one that are very far
another from each other
 Matter
Anything that has mass
and occupies space

Mixture
Pure Substance
Matter with indefinite
Matter with a definite composition
composition
Components cannot be separated
through physical means Components can be separated
through physical means

Element Homogeneous mixture

Substance which cannot be Mixture with a uniform
decomposed further into composition and with
simpler substances indistinguishable components

Compound Heterogeneous mixture

Substance which can be Mixture without a uniform
decomposed further into composition and and with
simpler substances distinguishable components
Properties of and Changes in Matter
• Intensive properties are those properties which do not vary with
amount of matter present (such as boiling point) while extensive
properties are those which vary with amount of matter present (such
as mass).
• Physical properties are those properties observable without changing
the composition of matter (such as volume), while chemical properties
are those which can only be observed by changing the composition of
matter (such as flammability).
• Physical change is a change where the composition of matter remains
the same (such as evaporation of water). Chemical change is a change
where the composition of matter changes (such as rusting of iron).
Measurement
• Measurement is comparing an unknown quantity with a standard. In
science, we usually use the metric system in measurements. This is
based upon the power of ten, which makes unit conversion easy.
• When we measure, the magnitude of the quantitative property and the
unit of the said measurement are essential. The preferred units are SI
units, after the French Système International d’Unités. There are seven
base SI units.
• Units for other properties can be obtained by combining these seven
base units, creating a derived unit.
• To change the scale of units, we use different prefixes to indicate
fractions or multiples of units.
Base Units of SI
Property Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s or sec
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Electric current Ampere A or amp
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Prefixes
Prefix Symbol Power of Ten Prefix Symbol Power of Ten
Exa- E 1018 Atto- a 10-18
Peta- P 1015 Femto- f 10-15
Tera- T 1012 Pico- p 10-12
Giga- G 109 Nano- n 10-9
Mega- M 106 Micro- µ 10-6
Kilo- k 103 Milli- m 10-3
Hecto- h 102 Centi- c 10-2
Deka- da 101 Deci- d 10-1
Scientific Notation
• Numbers are usually either very large or very small. To express them
in a short way, we express numbers in exponential or scientific
notation. Numbers in scientific notation are expressed in the form
N x 10n
• If n is positive, this means than N is multiplied with 10 n times. If n is
negative, this means that N is divided by 10 n times.
Calculations Involving Scientific Notation
• For addition and subtraction, express the given so that they have the
same values for n. Add N and copy the value of 10n.
• For multiplication and division, add (for multiplication) or subtract (for
division) the values of n. Multiply or divide N.
• For raising numbers to a power, the values of n are multiplied to the
power. For taking the root, the value of n is divided by the root.
Uncertainty in Measurement
• Exact numbers are values with no associated uncertainty. Inexact
numbers are those with an associated uncertainty. Measured values
are always inexact due to many factors (state of the measuring device,
the observer’s ability in measuring, approximation, temperature of
the room, etc.). It is normal, therefore, to obtain different
measurements for the same property.
• A measurement is said to be accurate if the measured value is close
to the true value of the property. Measurements are said to be
precise if the measured property have values that are close to one
another.
Significant Figures
• All certain digit and the last uncertain digit in a measurement are the
measurement’s significant figures. The more significant figures a
certain measurement has, the more precise the measurement.
Therefore, exact numbers always have an infinite number of
significant figures.
Determining the Number of Significant
Figures
• All non-zero digits are significant.
• All zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
• All zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
• All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are significant if there is
a realized decimal point.
• Zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are assumed to be not
significant if there is no realized decimal point. To indicate whether
they are significant or not, the measurement should be expressed in
scientific notation.
Calculations and Significant Figures
• For addition and subtraction, the answer should contain the same number of
decimal places as the measurement with the least number of decimal places.
• For multiplication and division, the answer should contain the same number
of significant figures as the measurement with the least number of
significant figures.
• For logarithms, the number of significant figures in the mantissa of a value
expressed in scientific notation equals the number of significant figures to
the right of the decimal in the logged value.
• For calculations involving multiple steps, always retain at least one
nonsignificant figure in the intermediate steps before expressing the final
answer in the correct number of significant figures.
Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional analysis is a process where the units and magnitudes of
a measurements are multiplied and divided with one another, during
which equivalent units are cancelled out. This process will help
systematize the way we deal with calculations involving
measurements.
• When doing dimensional analysis, conversion factors are usually
used. A conversion factor is a fraction where the numerator and
enumerator are the same but in different units.
ATOMS, IONS, AND
MOLECULES
Scientists and their Contributions to the
Development of Atomic Theory
Scientist Contribution
Democritus Proposed the concept of atoms (from atomos = uncuttable)
John Dalton Revived the concept of atom, proposed his atomic theory
Robert Millikan Measured the charge and mass of the electron through his oil-drop
experiment. His calculated charge for the electron is 1.602 x 10 -19 C and mass
as 9.10 x 10-28 g.
J. J. Thomson Discovered electrons, performed the cathode ray tube experiment, proposed
the “plum pudding model” of the atom, discovered the charge-to-mass ratio of
the electron
Ernest Rutherford Discovered the nucleus/protons, proposed a “planetary model” of the atom,
performed the Gold Foil experiment
James Chadwick Discovered neutrons
Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
• All atoms of a given element are identical, but the atoms of one
element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
• Atoms of one element cannot be changed into atoms of a different
element by chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reactions.
• Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element
combine; a given compound always has the same relative number
and kind of atoms.
Fundamental Chemical Laws
• Law of Definite Composition: In a given compound, the relative
numbers and kinds of atoms are constant
• Law of Conservation of Mass: The total mass of materials present
after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass present before
the reaction
• Law of Multiple Proportions: If two elements A and B combine to
form more than one compound, the masses of B that can combine
with a given mass of A are in the ratio of small whole numbers
Modern Atomic Structure
Particle Electronic Charge Charge Mass
(1 u = 1.66054 x 10-24 g)
Proton +1.602 x 10-19 C +1 1.0073 u
Neutron 0 0 1.0087 u
Electron -1.602 x 10-19 C -1 5.486 x 10-4 u
Atomic Number and Mass Number
• The atoms of every element differ from one another due to the number of
protons in an atom. This number is called the atomic number of an
element. Each element has a unique number of protons.
• Elements can have different number of neutrons. If two atoms have the
same number of protons but different number of neutrons, they are called
isotopes. Because isotopes differ in the number of neutrons, they differ in
mass.
• We can represent atoms of a given element through the following notation:

• where X is the chemical symbol of the element, Z is the number of protons

(atomic number), and A as the sum of the number of protons and neutrons,
which is called the mass number.
Molecular and Ionic Compounds
• When two or more atoms chemically combine, a molecule is formed.
Some elements are in the form of molecules. Compounds composed
of molecules that contain more than one type of atom are called
molecular compounds.
• If electrons are removed from or added to an atom, a charged particle
called an ion is formed. An ion with a positive charge is a cation; a
negatively charged ion is an anion. Ions are represented as Xc, where
c is the charge (difference between the number of protons and
number of electrons) of the ion. Ionic compounds are those made
from combining cations and anions.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
AND STOICHIOMETRY
Chemical Equations
• Chemical reactions are represented using chemical equations.
• In a chemical equation, the arrow can be read as “produces” or
“forms”. The plus sign on the left side is react as “reacts with”, while
that on the left side is read as “and”. Chemical species on the left side
of the arrow are called reactants, while those the right side are called
products. Numbers to the left of the chemical formula are called
coefficients, which indicate the number of species that participate in
the reaction.
• The symbols (g), (l), (s), and (aq) for substances that are gases, liquids,
solids, and dissolved in aqueous (water) solution, respectively.
Patterns of Reactivity
• Combination. A + B → C
• Decomposition. C → A + B
• Single replacement. AB + C → CB + A or AB + C → AC + B
• Double replacement. AB + CD → AD + CB
Balancing Chemical Equations
• Because all chemical reactions follow the Law of Conservation of
Mass, the number of atoms in the reactant side should always be
equal to the number of atoms in the product side; that is, the
equation should always be balanced.
• To balance chemical equations, we count the number of atoms on
either side of the reaction. If the number of atoms are not equal, we
change the coefficient of the species so that the number of atoms in
either side are equal. As much as possible, the smallest possible
whole numbers should be used when balancing. Take note that only
the coefficients can be changed when balancing; changing the
subscripts will violate the Law of Definite Composition.
The Mole
• Chemical formulas tell us the number of atoms present in a molecule. Coefficients in
equations tell us the relative number of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
• The sum of the atomic weights of atoms in a chemical formula is called the formula
weight.
• To relate formula weights to mass of chemical species, we make use of the mole, a
counting unit for describing large numbers of atoms or molecules. One mole is equal to
6.02214076 x 1023, or simply 6.02 x 1023. Scientists call this value Avogadro’s number.
• The coefficients in a chemical equation represent the relative numbers of molecules in a
reaction. The mole concept allows us to convert this information to the masses of the
substances in the reaction. The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation indicate both
the relative numbers of molecules (or formula units) in the reaction and the relative
numbers of moles.
Limiting Reactants
• The reactant that is completely consumed in a reaction is called the
limiting reactant because it determines, or limits, the amount of
product formed. The other reactants are sometimes called excess
reactants. There are no restrictions on the starting amounts of
reactants in any reaction. Indeed, many reactions are carried out
using an excess of one reactant. The quantities of reactants consumed
and products formed, however, are restricted by the quantity of the
limiting reactant.
 REACTIONS IN
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
• A solution is a mixture where its components have the same proportion all throughout. In a
solution, the solute, the substance/s in smaller quantity, is said to be dissolved in the solvent,
the substance in greater quantity. Both the solvent and the solute can be solid, liquid, or gas.
• An electrolyte is a solution where the solute, when dissolved in water, forms charged
particles or ions, which make them able to let electricity pass through. Electrolytes can
be classified as strong or weak, depending on the extent of dissociation of the solute.
• If the solute dissociates completely (or almost completely) as ions, they are strong
electrolytes. These include strong acids and bases and water-soluble ionic compounds.
• If the electrolyte does not dissociate completely, this is called a weak electrolyte. This
includes weak acids and bases, among others.
• A non-electrolyte does not dissociate to form ions and thus unable to conduct electricity.
Many molecular compounds (with acids and bases as notable exemptions) are non-
electrolytes.
Precipitation Reactions
• A precipitation reaction is a reaction that produces a precipitate, an
insoluble solid.
• These types of reactions usually are double displacement or metathesis
reactions.
• To determine whether a certain reaction forms a precipitate, the
solubility of a product is considered. The solubility of a substance is the
amount of that substance that can dissolve for a certain amount of
solvent in a certain temperature. If a certain substance has a molar
solubility of less than 0.01 mol/L, we consider the substance to be
insoluble. If it is insoluble and it is formed in a reaction, then the
substance will precipitate out.
Solubility Guidelines
Soluble Compounds Notable Exemptions
Compounds containing NO3-
CH3COO-
ClO3-
ClO4-
F- Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+
Cl- Hg22+, Pb2+, Ag+
Br- Hg22+, Pb2+, Ag+
I- Hg22+, Pb2+, Ag+
SO42- Hg22+, Pb2+, Ba2+, Sr2+
Insoluble Compounds
Compounds containing CO32- Group I cations, NH4+
PO43- Group I cations, NH4+
CrO42- Group I cations, NH4+
O2- Group I cations, NH4+
C2O42- Group I cations, NH4+
OH- Group I cations, NH4+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
S2- Group I cations, NH4+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
Acid-Base Reactions
• Acids are substances that are sour in taste and changes blue litmus paper to
red. They are also substances that ionize in water to form hydrogen ions (H +) or
protons.
• Some acids ionize to give out one H+ ion per molecule of acid. These are called
monoprotic acids. Other acids give out two are called diprotic acids or more
are called polyprotic acids.
• Bases, on the other hand, are substances that are usually bitter, slippery in feel,
turn red litmus paper to blue, and ionize in water to form hydroxide ions (OH -).
• Both acids and bases can be classified as strong or weak, depending on the
extent of their dissociation in water: strong if the dissociation is complete and
weak if not. Therefore, strong acids and bases are strong electrolytes while
weak acids and bases are weak electrolytes.
Common Strong Acids and Bases
List of Common Strong Acids and Bases
Strong Acids Strong Bases
hydrochloric acid (HCl) lithium hydroxide (LiOH)
chloric acid (HClO3) sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
perchloric acid (HClO4) potassium hydroxide (KOH)
hydrobromic acid (HBr) rubidium hydroxide (RbOH)
hydroiodic acid (Hl) cesium hydroxide (CsOH)
nitric acid (HNO3) calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) strontium hydroxide (Sr(OH)2)
barium hydroxide (Br(OH)2)
Acid-Base Reactions
• When an acid and a base combine and a react, a neutralization
reaction occurs. A neutralization reaction is the reaction of an acid
and a base, which usually involves the combination of H+ and OH- to
form water and the other ions to form a salt.
Redox Reactions
• Oxidation-reduction reactions (or redox reactions) are reactions that
involve the exchange of electrons. Redox reactions are composed of
two reactions that always come in pairs: oxidation (or the loss of
electrons) and reduction (or the gain of electrons).

• Oxidation number is a number given to a species that indicates if

there is a gain or loss of electrons. If after a reaction, the oxidation
number of a species changed, a redox reaction occurred.
How to Determine Oxidation Numbers
• Species in their elemental form have an oxidation number of 0.
• The oxidation of monoatomic ions is their charge. For ionic compounds, the following rules are
followed:
• For Group I ions, the oxidation number is always +1.
• For Group II ions, the oxidation number is always +2.
• For aluminum ion, the oxidation number is always +3.
• For nonmetals, the oxidation number is usually negative, with certain exemptions:
• Fluorine always has an oxidation number of -1.
• Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of -2, but as a peroxide, it has an oxidation number of -1. If paired
with fluorine, it will have a positive oxidation number.
• Hydrogen has an oxidation number of -1 if bonded with a metal and +1 if bonded with a nonmetal.
• Halides usually have an oxidation number of -1. However, (except for fluorine) when combined with
fluorine or oxygen, they will have a positive oxidation number.
• The sum of the individual oxidation numbers of a compound or ion is equal to the over-all charge
of the compound or ion.
 Activity Series
Species Oxidation Reaction
Li Li → Li+ + e- React with cold water,
K K → K+ + e- replacing hydrogen.
Ba Ba → Ba2+ + 2e-
Ease of Oxidation →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→

Sr Sr → Sr2+ + 2e-
Ca Ca → Ca2+ + 2e-
Na Na → Na+ + e-
Mg Mg → Mg2+ + e- React with steam, but
Al Al → Al3+ + 3e- not cold water, replacing If a metal is above another metal in the
hydrogen.
Zn Zn → Zn2+ + 2e- activity series, this metal is more easily
Cr Cr → Cr3+ + 3e- oxidized. Therefore, it can displace the
Fe Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
Cd Cd → Cd2+ + 2e-
cation in a salt of those metals below it.
Co Co → Co2+ + 2e- Do not react with water.
Ni Ni → Ni2+ + 2e- React with acids,
replacing hydrogen.
Sn Sn → Sn2+ + 2e-
Pb Pb → Pb2+ + 2e-
H2 H2 → 2H+ + 2e-
Cu Cu → Cu2+ + 2e- Unreactive with water or
Hg Hg → Hg2+ + 2e- acids.
Ag Ag → Ag+ + e-
Pt Pt → Pt2+ + 2e-
Au Au → Au3+ + 3e-
 ELECTRONIC
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
Light
• Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation. Just like other types of electromagnetic
radiation (infrared radiation, X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, etc.), light moves at a speed
of 2.998 x 108 m/s in a vacuum and has characteristic wavelengths (distance between two
adjacent peaks of a wave, expressed in nanometers) and

• Because light has the same speed, when the wavelength of light is long, the lower the
frequency of the wave. This can be expressed in the following equation:

λ=νc

• In the above description of light, light is described as a wave. However, certain

observations cannot be accounted for this type of model. Three of the most important
ones are blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect, and emission spectra.
Blackbody Radiation
• Radiation is emitted when solids are heated and the distribution of
wavelength depends on temperature.
• Max Planck proposed that energy can either be released or absorbed
in discrete chunks he called quanta. A single quantum equals a
constant times the frequency of the radiation. This constant is called
Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 J/s). According to Planck, matter can
emit or absorb energy in whole number multiples, that is, their values
are restricted only in certain quantities.
Photoelectric Effect
• When light is shined to the surface of a metal, electrons are emitted from its
surface. For a certain frequency of light, no matter how dim the light is,
electrons are emitted from the surface of the metal without a time delay.
• Albert Einstein was able to explain this phenomenon by considering light as
streams of chunks of energy. Each chunk is called a photon with energy equal
to the Planck constant times the frequency of the light:
E=hv
• Changing the intensity of the light will only change the number of photons
that will strike the metal surface, not the energy of the photons.
• This means that light has a dual nature: it has wave-like properties and
particle-like properties. This property of light is also a property of matter.
Line Spectra and the Bohr Model
• Some sources of light emit a single wavelength, while others emit a range of
wavelengths. If we separate these ranges of wavelength into its components, we
form a spectrum. Some spectra are continuous (just like the rainbow); however,
some are not. For example, when light emitted by neon lights are passed through a
prism, they separate but only certain wavelengths are present in the resulting
spectrum. When this happens, a line spectrum is formed.
• Niels Bohr applied quantum theory in explaining this. He formed a model based on
three postulates:
• Only orbits of certain radii, corresponding to certain specific energies, are permitted for the
electron in a hydrogen atom.
• An electron in a permitted orbit is in an “allowed” energy state. An electron in an allowed
energy state does not radiate energy and, therefore, does not spiral into the nucleus.
• Energy is emitted or absorbed by the electron only as the electron changes from one allowed
energy state to another. This energy is emitted or absorbed as a photon that has energy E = hν.
Line Spectra and the Bohr Model
• Using these postulates, he calculated the energies corresponding to the energies
allowed for the hydrogen atom. In his formula, the integer n, which can have
whole-number values of 1, 2, 3, …, is called the principal quantum number.
• For a hydrogen atom, each orbit has a corresponding n value. The larger the
value of n, the larger the radius of the orbit. Since the electrons are only allowed
in certain orbits, we can know the energies of the electron in each allowed orbit.
• The state where the atom is at its lowest possible energy is called its ground
state. Otherwise, it is in its excited state.
• Only if enough energy is absorbed or emitted can the electron move from one
orbit to another. The energy emitted is in the form of photons. This explains the
line spectra of hydrogen: electrons can only have quantized jumps between
energy levels.
Wave Behavior of Matter
• Louis de Broglie suggested that the dual properties of light also is
applicable to matter; that is, electrons moving about the nucleus of
an atom behave both like a particle and a wave. If this is the case,
electrons have wavelength and therefore has a wavelength.
• The larger the mass, the smaller the wavelength of matter waves. For
electrons, however, these wavelengths are large, since the mass of
the electron is very small.
The Uncertainty Principle
• Werner Heisenberg proposed that this dual nature of matter limits
how precisely we can know both the location and the momentum of
an object at a given instant. This is called the uncertainty principle.
This means that we cannot know the location of an electron and its
momentum simultaneously.
Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals
• Erwin Schrödinger proposed the Schrödinger’s wave equation that
incorporates both the wave-like and particle-like behaviors of the
electron.
• In Schrödinger’s model, the electron in a hydrogen atom is treated as a
standing wave.
• If we solve Schrödinger’s equation for the hydrogen atom, mathematical
functions called wave functions (ψ) that describe the electron in the
atom are the results.
• ψ2 provides information about the electron’s location when it is in an
allowed energy state. ψ2 is called the probability density or the electron
density.
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
• The solution to Schrödinger’s equation for the hydrogen atom yields a set of wave
functions called orbitals. Each orbital has a characteristic shape and energy. To
describe the orbital, three quantum numbers are used: , n, ℓ, and mℓ:
• The principal quantum number, n, can have positive integral values 1, 2, 3, . . . . As n
increases, the orbital becomes larger, and the electron spends more time farther from the
nucleus. An increase in n also means that the electron has a higher energy and is therefore
less tightly bound to the nucleus.
• The angular momentum quantum number, ℓ, can have integral values from 0 to n – 1 for
each value of n. This quantum number defines the shape of the orbital. The value of ℓ for a
particular orbital is generally designated by the letters s, p, d, and f corresponding to ℓ values
of 0, 1, 2, and 3:
• The magnetic quantum number, mℓ, can have integral values between -ℓ and ℓ, including
zero. This quantum number describes the orientation of the orbital in space.
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
• The collection of orbitals with the same value of n is called an electron shell. The set of
orbitals that have the same n and l values is called a subshell. Each subshell is
designated by a number (the value of n) and a letter (s, p, d, or f, corresponding to the
value of l).

• The restrictions on possible values give rise to the following very important
observations:
• The shell with principal quantum number n consists of exactly n subshells. Each subshell
corresponds to a different allowed value of ℓ from 0 to n - 1.
• Each subshell consists of a specific number of orbitals. Each orbital corresponds to a different
allowed value of mℓ. For a given value of ℓ, there are (2ℓ + 1) allowed values of m ℓ, ranging from -ℓ
to +ℓ.
• The total number of orbitals in a shell is n2, where n is the principal quantum number of the shell.
Representation of Orbitals
Orbitals for Many-Electron Atoms
• In a many-electron atom, however, the energies of the various
subshells in a given shell are different because of electron–electron
repulsions.

• In a many-electron atom, for a given value of n, the energy of an

orbital increases with increasing value of ℓ. All orbitals of a given
subshell that have the same energy are said to be degenerate.
Electron Spin
• George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit postulated that electrons
have an intrinsic property, called electron spin, that causes each
electron to behave as if it were a tiny sphere spinning on its own axis.
• The spin magnetic quantum number, denoted ms, has two possible
values: +1/2 or -1/2, which were first interpreted as indicating the two
opposite directions in which the electron can spin. The two opposite
directions of spin produce oppositely directed magnetic fields. These
two opposite magnetic fields lead to the splitting of spectral lines into
closely spaced pairs.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
• Wolfgang Pauli discovered the principle that governs the arrangement
of electrons in many-electron atoms. The Pauli exclusion principle
states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers.
• An orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons and they must have
opposite spins.
Electron Configuration
• The way electrons are distributed among the various orbitals of an
atom is called the electron configuration of the atom. The most
stable electron configuration—the ground state—is that in which the
electrons are in the lowest possible energy states.
Electron Configurations
• We can also show the arrangement of the electrons as orbital
diagrams, each orbital is denoted by a box and each electron by a half
arrow. A half arrow pointing up represents an electron with a positive
spin magnetic quantum number, and a half arrow pointing down
represents an electron with a negative spin magnetic quantum
number.
• Electrons having opposite spins are said to be paired when they are in
the same orbital. An unpaired electron is one not accompanied by a
partner of opposite spin. It is customary to show unpaired electrons
with their spins up.
Hund’s Rule
• Hund’s rule is based in part on the fact that electrons repel one
another. By occupying different orbitals, the electrons remain as far as
possible from one another, thus minimizing electron–electron
repulsions.
PERIODIC PROPERTIES
OF ELEMENTS
Development of the Periodic Table
Scientist Contribution
Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner Grouped elements into triads
John Newlands Developed law of octaves
Dmitri Mendeleev Organized periodic table according to
atomic mass
Lothar Meyer Organized periodic table according to
atomic mass
Henry Moseley Organized periodic table according to
atomic number
Periodic Trends
CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical Bonds
• Forces of attraction that hold groups of atoms together within a
molecule or crystal lattice and make them function as a unit.
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic Covalent Metallic
Description Transfer of electrons Sharing of electrons Electrons move freely
from one atom to between atoms, forming throughout the lattice
another, forming ions molecules
Bonding species Usually a metal and a Usually two or more Metals
nonmetal nonmetals
Chemical formula Empirical formula of the Molecular formula of the Formula of the neutral
participating species participating species atoms

Characteristics of Usually solid at room May be solid, liquid, or Solid at room

compound formed temperatures, generally gas at room temperature (with some
high melting point, good temperatures, generally exceptions like mercury),
conductor of electricity low melting point, poor have varying melting
and heat conductor of heat and points, good conductor
electricity of electricity and heat
Lewis Symbols, Octet Rule, and Lewis
Structures
• A Lewis dot symbol shows the number of valence electrons possessed by an
atom of a given element.
• The octet rule predicts that atoms form enough bonds to surround themselves
with eight electrons each. Usually, this rule applies to atoms with valence
electrons at the s and p orbitals.
• Exceptions to the octet rule include:
• molecules and polyatomic ions containing an odd number of electrons (such as free
radicals, like ClO2, NO, NO2, and O2-)
• molecules and polyatomic ions in which an atom has fewer than an octet of valence
electrons (like H which is stable with 2 surrounding electrons, Be with 4, and B with 6)
• molecules and polyatomic ions in which an atom has more than an octet of valence
electrons (elements at period 3 and below in the periodic table).
Lewis Symbols, Octet Rule, and Lewis
Structures
• For covalent bonds, their structures can be represented by using
Lewis structures. The more common convention to show each
shared electron pair or bonding pair is a line and any unshared
electron pairs (also called lone pairs or nonbonding pairs) as dots.
• A shared electron pair constitutes a single covalent bond, generally
referred to simply as a single bond. When two electron pairs are
shared by two atoms, two lines are drawn in the Lewis structure,
representing a double bond. A triple bond corresponds to the sharing
of three pairs of electrons.
Drawing Lewis Structures
• Sum the valence electrons from all atoms, taking into account overall
charge.
• Write the symbols for the atoms, show which atoms are attached to
which, and connect them with a single bond (a line, representing two
electrons).
• Complete the octets around all the atoms bonded to the central atom.
• Place any remaining electrons on the central atom, even if doing so
results in more than an octet of electrons around the atom.
• If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet, try
multiple bonds.
Bond Polarity
• Bond polarity is a measure of how equally or unequally the electrons in any
covalent bond are shared. A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the electrons
are shared equally. A polar covalent bond is one in which one of the atoms exerts
a greater attraction for the bonding electrons than the other. If the difference in
relative ability to attract electrons is large enough, an ionic bond is formed.

• To estimate whether a given bond is nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, or ionic, we

use the electronegativity values of the element. Electronegativity is the ability of
an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself. The greater the
electronegativity difference between two atoms, the more like polar the bond is.
Generally, if the difference in the electronegativity is 2 and above, it is considered
ionic, less than 0.4 is nonpolar covalent, and 0.4 to 2 is polar covalent.
Formal Charge
• When one atom in a covalently bonded pair donates two electrons to the bond, the Lewis structure
can include the formal charge on each atom as a means of keeping track of the valence electrons. The
formal charge of any atom in a molecule is the charge the atom would have if each bonding electron
pair in the molecule were shared equally between its two atoms.

• Formal charge=valence electrons-1/2 bonding electrons-nonbonding electrons

• If a certain compound has several possible Lewis structures, we use the formal charge in determining
which species is most dominant. The dominant Lewis structure is generally the one in which the
atoms bear formal charges closest to zero. A Lewis structure in which any negative charges reside on
the more electronegative atoms is generally more dominant than one that has negative charges on the
less electronegative atoms.

• For some molecules or polyatomic ions, two or more Lewis structures based on the same skeletal
structure satisfy the octet rule and appear chemically reasonable. Such resonance structures taken
together represent the molecule or ion.
 MOLECULAR
GEOMETRY AND
BONDING THEORIES
VSEPR Model
• The valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) is based on the
assumption that valence-shell electron pairs (also known as electron
domains) repel one another and tend to stay as far apart as possible.
• These electron domains can be bonding pairs (single or multiple
covalent bonds) or non-bonding pairs (lone electron pairs). The
arrangement of electron domains about the central atom of a
molecule or ion is called its electron-domain geometry.
VSEPR Model
• Molecular geometry is the arrangement of only the atoms in a
molecule or ion.
• Lone pairs repel other pairs more strongly than bonding pairs do and
thus distort bond angles from those of the ideal geometry.
• Electron domains for multiple bonds exert a greater repulsive force on
adjacent electron domains than do electron domains for single bonds.
VSEPR Model
Number of Electron- Bond Bonding Nonbonding Domains Molecular Geometry Form
Electron Domain angles Domains
Domains Geometry
2 Linear 180°C 2 0 Linear AB2
3 0 Triginal planar AB3
3 Trigonal planar 120°C
2 1 Bent (120°C) AB3E1
4 0 Tetrahedral AB4
4 Tetrahedral 109.5°C 3 1 Trigonal pyramidal AB3E1
2 2 Bent (109.5°C) AB2E2
5 0 Trigonal bipyramidal AB5

Trigonal 120°C, 4 1 Seesaw AB4E1

5
bipyramidal 90°C 3 2 T-shaped AB3E2
2 3 Linear AB2E3
6 0 Octahedral AB6
5 1 Square pyramidal AB5E1
6 Octahedral 90°C 4 2 Square planar AB4E2
3 3 T-shaped AB3E3
2 4 Linear AB2E4
Bond Polarity
• Bond polarity is a measure of how equally the electrons in a bond are
shared between the two atoms of the bond. As the difference in
electronegativity between the two atoms increases, so does the bond
polarity.

• The dipole moment is a measure of the charge separation in

molecules containing atoms of different electronegativities.
Hybridization
• Hybridization is the process of combining atomic orbitals, forming
hybrid orbitals. These orbitals are of different shape from the orbitals
which combined. In hybridized orbitals, the number of hybrid orbitals
on an atom equals the number of atomic orbitals that are mixed.
Atomic orbital set Hydrid orbital set Geometry
s, p 2 sp Linear
s, p, p 3 sp2 Trigonal planar
s, p, p, p 4 sp3 Tetrahedral
s, p, p, p, d 5 sp3d Trigonal bipyramidal
s, p, p, p, d, d 6 sp3d2 Octahedral
Hybridization
Characteristic Sigma bond Pi bond
Bond Formation Head-to-head overlap of orbitals Side-by-side overlap of orbitals
Strength Stronger and more stable Weaker
Shape and Geometry Allows free rotation Restricts rotation, planar or linear
Multiplicity in Bonds Present in single, double, and triple Present in double and triple bonds
bonds
Electron Density Along the bond axis, between the Above and below the bond axis
nuclei
Bonding Theories
Characteristic Vamence Bond Theory Molecular Orbital Theory
Key Bonding Concept Electron pairs are localized in the Electrons are distributed in
bond molecular orbitals
Bond Type Consideration Emphasizes sigma (σ) and pi (π) Considers a broader range of
bonds molecular orbitals
Predictive Power Better for describing localized Better for explaining molecular
bonds properties
Hybridization Often employs hybrid orbitals Does not require hybridization of
atomic orbitals
Overlap Type Only considers overlap along the Considers overlap in all directions
bond axis
Electron Distribution Electrons are assigned to specific Electrons are distributed
bonds throughout the molecule
Treatment of Excited States Less effective at describing excited Can describe excited states and
states molecular spectra
GASES
Important Facts
• Most elements that occur as gases are either monoatomic (the noble gases) or
diatomic (H2, N2, O2, F2, and Cl2). Others are compounds with low molecular mass
and usually made up of nonmetals.
• Gases have very similar physical properties even if they have different chemical
composition and properties.
• Gases expand to fill its container.
• Gases are very compressible.
• When gases combine, they form a homogeneous mixture.
• The molecules of a gas are very far apart from one another.
• Gases exert pressure.
• Gases can undergo effusion and diffusion
Air Pressure
• Pressure is the force exerted per unit area (P=F/A). This can be
expressed in various units and is measured by a barometer.
105 N/m2 = 105 Pa = 102 kPa = 1 bar = 1.01325 atm = 14.5038 psi
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr
• The standard atmospheric pressure (pressure at sea level) is equal to
1 atm.
Gas Laws
Gas Law Equation Notes
Boyle’s Law ↑P,↓V
Charles’ Law ↑T, ↑V
Gay-Lussac’s Law ↑T, ↑P
Avogadro’s Law ↑n, ↑V
Combined Gas Law
Ideal Gas Law (R = 0.08206 L⸱atm/mol⸱K = 8.314 J/mol⸱K = 1.987 cal/mol ⸱
K = 62.36 L⸱torr/mol⸱K)
Dalton’s Law of
Partial Pressures
Graham’s Law of ↑M, ↓r
Effusion
Kinetic Molecular Theory
• Gases are made up of small particles that are in continuous, random
motion.
• The combined volume of all the particles of the gas is negligible relative to
the total volume in which the gas is contained.
• Attractive and repulsive forces between gas molecules are negligible.
• Energy can be transferred between molecules during collisions but, as long
as temperature remains constant, the average kinetic energy of the
molecules does not change with time.
• The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the absolute
temperature. At any given temperature, the molecules of all gases have the
same average kinetic energy.
Ideal vs Real Gas
Characteristics Ideal Gas Real Gas
Molecular Attraction Negligible Significant
Volume of Particles Considered as point Finite
particles
Pressure-Volume Follows ideal gas law Deviates from ideal
Behavior gas law under high
pressure and low
temperature
Compressibility Does not vary in any Varies with conditions
condition
SOLUTIONS
Solutions
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. They are composed of a solute
and a solvent.
• The opposite of the solution process is called crystallization.
• Solubility is the amount of solute that can dissolve in a certain
amount of solvent at a particular temperature.
• When a solution has the maximum amount of solute dissolved in the
solvent, it is saturated at that temperature. Less than this maximum
amount, the solution is unsaturated. More than the maximum
amount, the solution is supersaturated.
Solutions
Factors Affecting Solubility
• Solute-solvent interactions: Like dissolves like.
• Temperature: For solids, as temperature increases, solubility
increases. For gases, as temperature increases, solubility decreases.
• Pressure: For gases, as pressure increases, solubility increases.
Some Important Equations
Method Unit Formula
Percent by mass %(w/w)

Percent by volume %(v/v)

Percent by mass for volume %(w/v)

Parts per million ppm

Parts per billion ppb

Molarity M

Molality m

p-Value -
Mole fraction -

Formality F

Normality N
Solutions
Colligative properties
• Vapor pressure lowering
• Boiling point elevation
• Freezing point depression
• Osmotic pressure
THERMOCHEMISTRY
Thermochemistry and Chemical
Thermodynamics
• Heat is the flow of energy of a body with a higher temperature to a
body of a lower temperature.
• Temperature is the measure of how hot or cold something is relative
to another thing.
• Heat can be transferred through conduction, convection, and
radiation.
• The heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Kelvin. The
higher the heat capacity of a substance, the more heat needed to
raise its temperature.
Thermochemistry and Chemical
Thermodynamics
• Exothermic reactions are reactions that release heat to the
surroundings.
• Endothermic reactions are reactions that absorb heat from the
surrounding.
• Entropy is the measure of randomness or disorderliness of a system.
Thermochemistry
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be
transformed from one form to another.
Thermochemistry
• Types of Thermochemical Systems
• Open
• Energy and matter can be exchanged between system and surrounding
• Closed
• Energy can be exchanged between system and surrounding, but not matter
• Isolated
• Neither energy nor matter can be exchanged from system to surrounding
Thermochemistry
• Heat (q)
• Energy that causes the temperature of an object to change
• Flow of energy from a body of a higher temperature to a body of lower
temperature when placed in thermal contact
• Work (w)
• Energy transferred when a force exerted on an object causes displacement
Thermochemistry
• If heat enters the system, q is positive
• If heat leaves the system, q is negative
• If work is done by the system, w is negative
• If work is done to the system, w is positive
Thermochemistry
• Internal Energy (E)
• Sum of all energies of the components of a system
• Cannot be quantified, but has a fixed value, and is an extensive property
Thermochemistry
• Endothermic reactions
• Heat flows into the system
• Exothermic reactions
• Heat flows out of the system
Thermochemistry
• More heat an energy gains, the hotter it gets
• Different substances have different magnitudes of temperature
changes for the same amount of heat
• Determined by heat capacity (C), the amount of heat required to raise
a substance’s temperature by 1 K (or 1 °C)
• The greater the heat capacity, the greater the heat required to
produce a given increase in temperature
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
• Physical state of reactants
• Concentration of reactants
• Temperature
• Presence of a catalyst
Reaction Rate
• The rate of a certain reaction refers to the change of the
concentration of reactants or products per unit time. Usually,
reaction rates are expressed as M/s or change in concentration in
molarity per second.
• The rate at a certain time is called the instantaneous rate. This can
be obtained by getting the slope of the line tangent to the graph of
change in amount.
Rate Law
• The rate of the reaction depends on the concentrations of the
reactants. This can be expressed as a rate law.

• The reaction order determines how much the reactant affects the
rate. (↑reaction order, ↑influence in the reaction rate). They are not
necessarily the coefficients of the reactants in the chemical equation.
• The rate constant k is an indication of how fast or slow a certain
reaction is. (↑ k, ↑ rate)
Rate Law
Order Rate Law Equation relating initial concentration Unit of k
and concentration at time = t

Zero

First

Second
The Collision Model
• According to the collision model, for a reaction to occur, the particles
involved in the reaction should collide (↑ collisions, ↑ rate). This could
happen if the concentration of the reactants is high or if the movement
of the particles is fast.
• The orientation of the molecules colliding should be correct in order for
a reaction to occur.
• Colliding molecules must have a certain minimum energy for a reaction
to occur. This energy comes from the kinetic energies of the molecules
that is used to transform the potential energy for bond formation and
breaking. This minimum energy is called the activation energy (Ea).
Activation Energy
Arrhenius Equation
• The Arrhenius equation relates the number of collisions per second,
the collisions that have proper orientation, and activation energy.

or
Reaction Mechanism
• Reaction mechanisms tell us which bonds are broken and which are formed
and when and how the reactants change orientations to produce the product.
They also tell us whether the reaction occurs in just one step, or several steps.
• Each step or event that happens in in a reaction is called an elementary
reaction. The molecularity of a reaction is determined by the number of
molecules that participate in an elementary reaction
• If a reaction mechanism is composed of several elementary reactions, the
reaction has a multistep mechanism.
• In a series of elementary reaction, the slowest reaction is the one which limits
the reaction rate of the over-all reaction. Thus, this is called the rate-
determining step.
Catalyst
• A catalyst makes the reaction rate faster but does not get consumed.
• Catalysts can either be a homogeneous catalyst (the same phases as
the reactants) or a heterogeneous catalyst (a different phase as the
reactants).
• Catalysts can achieve this effect by ensuring better molecular
orientation or providing better reaction mechanisms that has lower
activation energy.
• Catalyzed reaction has more steps, but both have lower activation
energies, and therefore, faster rates.
 CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM
Chemical Equilibrium
• When a reaction is at a state of chemical equilinbrium, the
concentrations of reactants and products no longer change with time
and a particular ratio of concentration terms equals a constant.
• At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of
the reverse reaction. The equilibrium constant is the ratio between
the products and reactants at the same condition.
Chemical Equilibrium
• For gases

• To relate Kc and Kp, we have

Properties of Equilibrium Constants and
Expressions
• ↑K, the products dominate; ↓K, the reactants dominate.
• If Q < K, the reaction should proceed to form more products; If Q > K, the
reaction should proceed to form more reactants; If Q = K, the reaction is at
equilibrium.
• We omit solids or a pure liquids in equilibrium expressions
• The equilibrium constant expression for the reverse reaction is the
reciprocal of the equilibrium constant of the forward reaction.
• If we know the equilibrium constants of chemical reactions that add up to a
chemical reaction with an unknown equilibrium constant, we can calculate
the unknown equilibrium constant. To calculate for the equilibrium
constant, we can multiply their equilibrium constants.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
• Any changes in the state or conditions of a system may disturb its
equilibrium. When this happens, the system will not be in equilibrium
and therefore, the reaction will shift to a direction to regain
equilibrium. This principle is called Le Châtelier’s Principle.
• Factors that may shift in equilibrium:
• Change in the concentration of products and reactants. If a substance is
added to a system at equilibrium, the system reacts to consume some of the
substance.
• Change in pressure. ↓volume, shift in the direction that reduces gas.
• Change in temperature. ↑temperature, shifts in the direction that consumes
heat.
Effect of Catalysts
• The addition of a catalyst increases the rate of both the forward and
reverse reactions. This results in a faster rate to achieve equilibrium,
but the value of K does not change.
ACID-BASE
EQUILIBRIA
 Definitions of Acids and Bases
Acids Bases
Arrhenius increase H+ concentration increase OH- concentration in
when dissolved in water water
Bronsted-Lowry donates a proton to another accepts a proton from another
substance substance
Lewis accepts an electron pair from donates an electron pair to
another substance another substance
Other remarks Sour taste, stingy to mucus Bitter or chalky taste, slippery
membrane, turns blue litmus or soapy feel, turns red litmus
paper to red, has pH less than paper to blue, has pH greater
7 than 7
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
• In an acid-base equilibria, the forward and reverse reaction involves
proton transfer.
• Acids and bases which only differ with one proton are called
conjugate acid-base pairs.
• If an acid readily donates protons, it is said to be a relatively strong
acid. If an acid is relatively strong, its conjugate base is relatively
weak.
• In a certain acid-base equilibria, the favored direction of a reaction is
always towards the one that would form the weaker acid and weaker
base.
pH and pOH
• Since water can act as an acid or a base, it can react with itself in an acid-base reaction
in a process called autoionization.

Kw = [H+][OH-] = 10-14
-log Kw = -log [H+] + -log [OH-] = -log 10-14
pKw = pH + pOH = 14
• At 25 °C, the value of Kw is 10-14. If the [H+] = [OH-], a substance is said to be neutral.
However, if [H+] > [OH-], a substance is said to be acidic and if [H+] < [OH-], a substance is
said to be basic.
• Since the [H+] in water and aqueous solutions are very small, we usually express them in
the negative logarithm of [H+], or pH.
Strength of acids and bases
• Strong acids are acids which dissociate completely in water. These
include HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4, HClO3, HBr, and HI
• Strong bases are bases which dissociate completely in water. These
include LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, and Sr(OH)2
• Weak acids are acids which do not dissociate completely in water.
How strong or weak an acid is is based their acid dissociation
constants (Ka). ↑Ka, ↑strength as an acid.
• Weak bases are bases which do not dissociate completely in water.
How strong or weak a base is is based their base dissociation
constants (Kb). ↑Kb, ↑strength as a base.
Buffers
• Solutions that contain high concentrations of a weak
conjugate acid–base pair and that resist drastic
changes in pH when small amounts of strong acid or
strong base are added to them are called buffered
solutions (or merely buffers).
• A buffer resists changes in pH because it contains both
an acid to neutralize added OH- ions and a base to
neutralize added H+ ions.
 CHEMICAL
THERMODYNAMICS
Spontaneous and Non-Spontaneous
Processes
• A spontaneous process is one that occurs on its own without any
outside assistance. They occur in one direction only, and the reverse
of any spontaneous process is always nonspontaneous. Some
conditions, such as temperature, often determine spontaneity of
reactions.
Reversible and Irreversible Reactions
• A reversible process is one for which we can restore the system to its
original condition with no change to the surroundings.
• An irreversible process is one that leaves the surroundings somehow
changed when the system is restored to its original state.
• Spontaneous processes irreversible.
• For any spontaneous change, returning the system to its original
condition results in a net change in the surroundings.
Entropy and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics
• Entropy (S) is a measure of the tendency for energy to spread or disperse, thereby
reducing its ability to accomplish work. In a general sense, it reflects the degree of
randomness or disorder associated with the particles that carry the energy. Entropy
is a state function.
Reversible Process: ΔSuniv = ΔSsys + ΔSsurr = 0
Irreversible Process: ΔSuniv = ΔSsys + ΔSsurr > 0
• Second law of thermodynamics: The entropy of the universe increases for any
spontaneous process.
• We generally expect the entropy of a system to increase for processes in which
• Gases form from either solids or liquids.
• Liquids or solutions form from solids.
• The number of gas molecules increases during a chemical reaction.
Gibbs Free Energy
• Gibbs free energy (or just free energy) relates these two enthalpy and
entropy. For an isothermal process, the change in the free energy of
the system, ΔG, is
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
• If ΔG < 0, the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.
• If ΔG = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium.
• If ΔG > 0, the reaction in the forward direction is nonspontaneous
(work must be done to make it occur) but the reverse reaction is
spontaneous.
Gibbs Free Energy
ΔH ΔS -TΔS ΔG Reaction Characteristics
- + - - Spontaneous at all temperatures
+ - + + Nonspontaneous at all temperatures
- - + +/- Spontaneous at ↓ T; nonspontaneous at ↑ T
+ + - +/- Spontaneous at ↑ T; nonspontaneous at ↓ T
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Parts of an Electrochemical Cell
• Electrodes
• Electrolyte
• Electrical Conductor for External Circuit
• Salt Bridge (in some cells)
• Half-Cell Compartments
Electrodes
Based on reaction
• Anode is an electrode where oxidation (loss of electrons) occurs, and it is usually
labeled as the negative (-) terminal (for a galvanic cell).
• Cathode is an electrode where reduction (gain of electrons) occurs, and it is usually
labeled as the positive (+) terminal (for a galvanic cell).

Based on intended applications

• Active electrodes: actively participate in the chemical reactions of an electrochemical
cell.
• Inert electrodes: do not participate in the chemical reactions of an electrochemical cell.
• Reference electrodes: used to measure the electric potential (voltage) of a half-cell or
to maintain a stable potential in certain electrochemical experiments.
Types of Electrochemical Cells
Characteristic Voltaic or Galvanic Cell Electrolytic Cell
Purpose Convert chemical energy into electrical Use electrical energy to drive a non-
energy spontaneous chemical reaction

Spontaneity of Chemical Reaction Spontaneous redox reactions which Non-spontaneous reactions which
release energy require energy

Direction of Electron Flow Anode to cathode Cathode to anode

Electrode Polarity Anode is negatively charged, and Anode is positively charged, and
cathode is positively charged. cathode is negatively charged.

Energy Source Chemical energy stored in reactants External electrical energy source

Charge Flow Positive ions flow from anode to Positive ions move from anode to
cathode through the electrolyte. cathode through the electrolyte.

Electrolyte Contains ions that facilitate the redox Contains ions that are involved in the
reactions but do not undergo significant non-spontaneous redox reactions.
chemical changes.
Cell Potentials
• potential energy of electrons is higher in the anode than in the cathode. Thus,
electrons flow spontaneously toward the electrode with the more positive
electrical potential.
1 V = 1 J/C
• The potential difference between the two electrodes of a voltaic cell is called the
cell potential or electromotive force or voltage of the cell.
• The cell potential of any voltaic cell is positive. The magnitude of the cell potential
depends on the reactions that occur at the cathode and anode, the concentrations
of reactants and products, and the temperature, which we will assume to be 25 °C
unless otherwise noted.
• The cell potential under standard conditions is called either the standard cell
potential.
Important Equations

E°cell = E°red (cathode) - E°red (anode)

G° = -nFE°

E = E° - (RT/nF)ln Q

E = E° - (2.303 RT/nF)log Q

E = E° - (0.0592 V/n)log Q
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic Chemistry
• branch of chemistry that is concerned with compounds containing
carbon.
• study of carbon-containing compounds that usually contain hydrogen
(H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), or halogens
(F, Cl, Br, I).
• Exceptions: compounds such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO2), carbonates like sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and
carbonic acid (H2CO3), and cyanides such as potassium cyanide (KCN)
• More than 20 million organic compounds known today
Comparison between Organic and
Inorganic Compounds
Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
Elements present Generally contains carbon, Generally does not contain
hydrogen, and oxygen. carbon
Type of chemical bond present Covalent Covalent or ionic
Melting and boiling point Generally low Generally high
Solubility to water Mostly insoluble Mostly soluble
Solubility to organic solvents Soluble Insoluble
Conductivity Generally poor Generally good
Combustibility Mostly combustible Mostly non-combustible
Volatility Mostly volatile Mostly non-volatile
Catenation Exhibited Usually not exhibited
Isomerism Exhibited Usually not exhibited
Reaction Rate Usually slow Usually fast
Classify each compound as organic or
inorganic.
• acetic acid
• acetylene
• ammonia
• butane
• calcium chloride
• ethyl alcohol
• glucose
• muriatic acid
• table salt
• table sugar
Characteristics of the Carbon Atom
• Carbon has an atomic number of six and has six electrons
• Electrons are found in regions in space called orbitals.
• These orbitals (represented as s, p, d, f) are organized in
shells, which differ in size and energy
• Each orbital can occupy up to two electrons, and in an
atom’s ground state (lowest energy state), orbitals of
lower energies are filled first before orbitals of higher
energies.
Characteristics of the Carbon Atom
• The distribution of electrons, or electron configuration, of carbon in
its ground state is 1s22s22p2 or

• Carbon has four outermost electrons or valence electrons.

• Carbon is classified under Group IVA or Group 14 in the periodic table
(elements having four valence electrons).
Bond Properties
• Bond Strength. The larger the magnitude of the bond strength, the
more energy needed to break the bond, and therefore, the stronger the
bond is. Bond strength is affected by the nature of bonding atoms, size
of the bonding atoms, and the type and number of bonds.
• Bond Length. This optimum distance that contributes to the stability of
the bond is the bond length. Bond strength is affected by the nature of
bonding atoms, size of the bonding atoms, and the type and number of
bonds.
• Bond Angle. According to the valence shell electron pair repulsion
(VSEPR) theory, the atoms will orient themselves so as to reduce the
repulsion between the electrons.
Isomerism
• When compounds have the same molecular formula but different
connectivity, they are isomers of one another.
• There are two major types of isomers: constitutional isomers and
stereoisomers. Constitutional or structural isomers have differing
arrangements of atoms, while stereoisomers have the same
arrangements but different spatial orientations.
Resonance Theory
• According to resonance theory, when a molecule or ion can be
represented by more than one Lewis structure that only differs in the
position of electrons, all the structures do not represent the real
structure but instead contribute to the real structure. Each structure
is called a resonance or contributing structure, and the real structure
is a hybrid of these resonance structures.
– –
O O O

– – – –
O O O O O O
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
• Ion-dipole interactions. The partial positive charge of the polar molecule
is attracted to anions (which are negatively-charged) and the partial
negative charge of the polar molecule is attracted to cations (which are
positively-charged). This attraction is very important in forming solutions,
especially if the interaction causes ion solvation.
• Dipole-dipole interactions. Polar molecules may attract or repel each
other, depending on how they are oriented. When one’s partial positive
charge is oriented next to a partial negative charge of another molecule,
an attraction is formed, called a dipole-dipole interaction. They can be
very important in determining many properties of organic molecules.
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
• Hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds are a type of dipole-dipole
interactions which are much stronger than ordinary dipole-dipole
interactions. This interaction is between a hydrogen atom bonded to
an electronegative atom and the atoms fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen.
• London forces. Electrons are in constant motion and on the average,
the center of the negative charge coincides with the center of the
positive charge. However, at any given time, there may be a moment
in which the centers may not coincide, creating an instantaneous
dipole moment. This may influence the atoms surrounding it to also
form instantaneous dipoles.
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
• London forces is weaker compared to other intermolecular forces of
attraction. This is also influenced by the surface area of the molecule:
the greater the surface area, the greater the accommodations for
interactions. Also, this is present in all molecules, whether they are
polar or not.
Families of Carbon-Containing
Compounds
Families of Carbon-Containing
Compounds
Families of Carbon-Containing
Compounds
Families of Carbon-Containing
Compounds
Circle and identify the functional groups in
the following.
O H

H C O

C C

H H
Circle and identify the functional groups in
the following.

O O O
O
O CH3 O O
H2N
O CH3
H3C
O
Alkanes
• Alkanes are composed of only carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms and
contain only single bonds.
• Compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbons. Thus, an alkane is a hydrocarbon that has only single
bonds.
• Alkanes in which the carbons form a continuous chain with no
branches are called straight-chain alkanes.
Alkanes
Properties of Alkanes
• Boiling Point. Methane, ethane, propane, and butane are gases at
room temperature. The unbranched alkanes pentane (C5H12) through
heptadecane (C17H36) are liquids, whereas higher homologs are solids.
The boiling points of unbranched alkanes increase with the number of
carbon atoms.
• Melting Point. Solid alkanes are soft, generally low-melting materials.
• Solubility in Water. Alkanes—indeed all hydrocarbons—are virtually
insoluble in water.
• Combustibility. Alkanes and cycloalkanes burn in air to give carbon
dioxide, water, and heat. This process is called combustion.
Alkenes
• Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain a carbon–carbon double bond.
• Alkenes resemble alkanes in most of their physical properties. The
lower-molecular-weight alkenes through C4H8 are gases at room
temperature and atmospheric pressure.
• Examples include ethene and propene which are used in manufacture
of plastics, styrene used in making car battery cases and parts of the
refrigerator, manufacture of ethanol and synthetic fibre terylene,
making an anti-knock for car engines., etc.
Alkynes
• Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain a carbon–carbon triple bond.
• They are more reactive than alkenes and alkanes.
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Known for their odor
• Examples include formaldehyde, vanillin, cinnamaldehyde,
benzaldehyde, camphor, carvone, 2-heptanone, jasmone,
progesterone, testosterone, cortisone, muscone, acetone, and
cyclohexanone
Carboxylic acids and derivatives
• Examples include formic acid, acetic acid, acetylsalicylic acid, ascorbic acid,
citric acid, and oxalic acid
• Derivatives include esters, amides, acid chlorides, and acid anhydrides
• Examples of esters include butyl formate (raspberry), butyl acetate (apple),
ethyl butyrate (pineapple), propyl isobutyrate (rum), benzyl acetate (peach),
octyl acetate (orange), methyl salicylate (wintergreen), methyl phenylacetate
(honey), and ethyl methylphenylglycidate (strawberry)
• Examples of uses of amides include proteins, Nylons, Kevlar, paracetamol,
penicillin and LSD.
• Acid chlorides and acid anhydrides are very reactive and are thus not seen in
nature