Carbon & its Compounds

Isomerism

The organic compounds which have same molecular formula but

different structural formula (different arrangements of atoms
present) are called isomers and the phenomena is called
isomerism.
 Isomers of Butane (C4 H10 )

Butane shows two types of isomers-

• N-butane (IUPAC- Butane )
• Iso-Butane (IUPAC- 2-Methyl Propane )
 Isomers of Pentane (C5H12)

Butane shows three types of isomers-

• N-Pentane (IUPAC – Pentane)
• Iso-Pentane (IUPAC- 2-Methyl Butane )
• Neo-Pentane (IUPAC- 2,2 DiMethyl Propane)
 Isomers of Pentane (C5H12)

Butane shows three types of isomers-

• N-Pentane (IUPAC – Pentane)
• Iso-Pentane (IUPAC- 2-Methyl Butane )
• Neo-Pentane (IUPAC- 2,2 DiMethyl Propane)
 Hydrocarbons

The organic compounds which are made up of only carbon and

hydrogen atoms are called Hydrocarbons. Ex- Methane, Ethane,
Propane, etc.

Alkanes
 Open Chain or Acyclic Hydrocarbons

The Hydrocarbons which contain a non-connected or open chain of

carbon atoms in their molecules are called open chain or acyclic or
aliphatic hydrocarbons.

The carbon chain maybe either straight or branched. eg- Methane,

Ethane, Propane, Butane.
 Saturated Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic hydrocarbons in which all the carbon to carbon bonds are

single bonds are called saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes. General
formula of alkanes is { CnH2n+2 } where n is the number of carbon
atoms.

Ex- Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane.

 Saturated Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic hydrocarbons in which all the carbon to carbon bonds are

single bonds are called saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes. General
formula of alkanes is { CnH2n+2 } where n is the number of carbon
atoms.

Ex- Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane.

 Aromatic Hydrocarbons

These contain one or more chains of 6 or more carbon atoms with

alternate single and double bonds. This is called Benzene ring,
Toluene, and Phenol rings.

Ex- Benzene, Toluene, and Phenol rings

Benzene Toluene Phenol

 Alkyl Group

The removal of one hydrogen atom from a molecule of an Alkane

gives the corresponding alkyl group.

Ex- If one hydrogen is removed from Methyl ( -CH3 ). The general

formula for Alkyl group is { CnH2n+1 } or R .
 Functional Group

An atom or a group of atoms which largely determines the

chemical properties of an organic compound is called a functional
group.
 Homologous Series

Homologous series is a family or class of structurally similar organic

compounds containing the same functional group and in which two
successive members differ by –-CH2

The members of a homologous series are called homologous.

 Characteristics of Homologous Series

1. All the members of homologous series can be represented by same

general formula.
For example : General formula of Alkanes is CnH2n+2 (n=1,2,3,…)
General formula of alkynes is CnH2 (n=2,3,4,…)
General formula of alkenes is CnH2n-2 (n=2,3,4,…)
General formula of aldehyde is CnH2n+1--CHO (n=0)
2. Each successive member differs in formula by a common difference of
CH2.
3. The molecular mass of two successive members of a homologous series
differs by 14 .
4. All the members of a particular homologous series show almost same
chemical properties because of the presence of the same functional
group.
5. There is a gradual change in the physical properties such as density,
melting point, boiling point, solubility, etc .with increase in molecular
mass.
6. All the members of a particular homologous series can be prepared by the
same general methods of preparation.
 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

The term ‘nomenclature’ means the system of naming organic compounds.

A systematic method of naming the organic compounds was adopted by
‘International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry’ and is called IUPAC
system of nomenclature.

The IUPAC system of nomenclature is a set of logical rules devised and

used by organic chemists for naming the organic compounds.

IUPAC System of Nomenclature:

The IUPAC name of an organic compound normally consists of four parts.

These are written in the following sequences.

Prefix ……........Word root………Primary Suffix………Secondary Suffix

 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

Word Root-
It is called root name. It denotes the number of Carbon
atoms in the longest selected chain.
 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

Suffix-
It means ‘phase after’. It is written after word root.

1. Primary Suffix- It denotes the type of carbon to carbon bond in

organic compounds. Primary suffix for C-
C bond is ‘ane’ Primary suffix for C=C bond is
‘ene’ Primary suffix for C≡C bond is ‘yne’
2. Secondary Suffix- It denotes the functional group present in the
molecule and is attached to the primary suffix while writing the
IUPAC name.
 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

Prefix-
It means ‘phase before’ . It is written before the word root and
denotes the substituent groups i.e. the groups that are not included
in the longest selected chains .
 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

While writing the secondry suffix, the ‘e’ of the primary

suffix is replaced by IUPAC name of the functional
group.
 Writing IUPAC Name of Organic Compounds

1. Select the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms. This must

include the carbon atoms of the double bond ( C=C) , triple bond
(C≡C), and also those involved in the traditional group. The change
selected in this manner is called parent chains. (the parent chain
may or may not be straight )
2. Number the chain from one end to the other in such a manners so
as to give the lowest number in the following order of preference:
Functional group > Double Bond or
Triple Bond > Prefix Example –
 Writing IUPAC Name of Organic Compounds

3. The positions of prefixes and suffixes are indicated by Arabic

numerals. The position and name are separated by a hyphen. For
example:

Word root : But-

Primary Suffix (C=C) : -ene
Position of double bond is at 1,
so IUPAC name is But-1-ene or Butene-1

4. If there are more than one substitutes, then they should be written
in alphabetical order. For example

3-Chloro-Butan-2-ol
 Chemical Properties Of Carbon Compounds

Combustion:
Combustion is an act or instance of burning of a substance. Combustion is usually a rapid
chemical reaction which produces heat and usually light. Example –

1. Carbon in all its allotropic forms, burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide with
release of heat and light.
2. Natural gas, which is mainly methane, burns to give carbon dioxide and water.
3. Ordinary cooking gas (LPG) is normally a mixture of propane and butane or butane
and isobutane. It burns with a bluish flame producing a large amount of heat.
4. Ethanol is a volatile and highly inflammable liquid as it catches fire readily. It burns
with a blue flame.

1. C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)+ Heat + Light

2. CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + Heat + Light
3. (i) C3H8(g) + 5O2(s)  3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g) + Heat+ Bluish Flame
(ii) C4H10(g) + (13/2)O2(g)  4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) + Heat+
BluishFlame
4. C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 3H20(g) + Heat + Bluish Flame
 Chemical Properties Of Carbon Compounds
Combustion
 Saturated hydrocarbons, generally, give a clean bluish flame whereas
unsaturated hydrocarbons give a yellow flame with a black smoke.
 For example, methane burns in air with bluish flame whereas ethene and
ethyne (unsaturated hydrocarbons) burn with a yellow sooty flame. This is
because of higher percentage of carbon in unsaturated hydrocarbons
Chemical Properties Of Carbon Compounds
Combustion
 The gas stove and kerosene stove used in
our homes have tiny holes or inlets for air so
that sufficient amount of air or oxygen is
available for complete combustion (or
oxidation) of the fuel to produce a smokeless
blue flame.
 Sometimes, we observe that the LPG burns
with a sooty flame and the bottoms of the
cooking vessels get blackened. This shows
that the air holes of the gas stove (or
kerosene stove) are blocked and there is
incomplete combustion due to insufficient
supply of air (or oxygen).
 The unburnt carbon particles make the flame
sooty and blacken the bottom of a cooking
vessel. It is, therefore, recommended to
clean the holes or inlets regularly.
 Chemical Properties Of Carbon Compounds

Oxidation :

(i) Combustion
Carbon compounds are easily oxidized on combustion. For example,

Combustion is uncontrolled oxidation of the compound.

Ethanol burns with blue flame to form carbon dioxide and water :
 Chemical Properties Of Carbon Compounds

Oxidation :

(ii) Oxidation in the presence of an oxidizing agent:

Alkaline or acidic potassium permanganate (KMnO), acidified
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2),
ozone (O3), etc, are commonly used for the oxidation of carbon
compounds.

For example, alkaline potassium permanganate oxidises ethanol to

ethanoic acid:
 Important Carbon Compounds

Ethanol: Ethanol is also called grain alcohol or drinking alcohol. Usually,

ethanol is just called alcohol or spirit.
 Physical Properties of Ethanol
• Ethanol is a colorless liquid with a characteristic alcoholic smell and
It burning taste.
• It is a volatile liquid having a low boiling point of 78.37C (351.37 k).
• It is lighter than water.
• It is miscible with water in all proportions. The high solubility of
alcohol in water is due to the presence of –OH group.
• 100% of pure ethanol is called absolute alcohol . Ethanol
containing about 5% water is called rectified spirit.
• Ethanol itself is a good solvent.
• Drinking pure alcohol may prove deadly but consumption of smaller
quantities of ethyl alcohol causes intoxication and drunkenness.
 Chemical Properties of Ethanol
• Neutral Character:- Ethanol is neutral in character and therefore, it
does not affect litmus solution.
• Combustion:- Ethanol is highly volatile and combustible liquid. It
burns with smokeless blue flame.

C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) + Heat

• It is therefore, a cleaner fuel as it gives only carbon dioxide and

water on burning with sufficient air (oxygen). Therefore, the largest
single use of ethanol is as a motor fuel and fuel additive.
 Reaction with Sodium:-
• The chemical equation of the reaction
between ethanol and sodium is as follows:
2C2H2OH(l) + 2Na(s) 2C2H5ONa(l) + H2(g)
In fact, alcohols react with other alkali metals like K, etc.,
and evolve hydrogen gas.
This reaction is used as a test for alcohols (or alcoholic
group)
• Oxidation: The oxidation products obtained from ethanol on oxidation
depend upon the reaction conditions and the oxidising agent used.
• (a) Partial oxidation: On oxidation with mild oxidising agents such as
chromic anhydride (CrO) dissolved in acetic acid (CH,COOH), the
product of oxidation is ethanal commonly called acetaldehyde.
C2H5OH + [O] CrO CH COOH CH3CHO + H2O’
3, 3

• (b) Complete oxidation

• (i) When warmed with a dilute alkaline solution of potassium
permanganate (KMnO4), ethanol gets oxidised into ethanoic acid
CH3CH2OH + 2[0] CH3COOH + H2O
• (i) Similarly, acidified potassium dichromate solution oxidises ethanol
into ethanoic acid.
CH3CH2OH + [O] CH3COOH + H2O
The change of ethanol to ethanoic acid is oxidation because it involves
removal of hydrogen from or addition of oxygen to ethanol.
Dehydration to give Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons:
• Dehydration means removal of water which is chemically
bound to a substance and/or removal of elements of water as
H2O from a compound.
• When ethyl alcohol is heated with excess of concentrated sulphuric
acid at 443 K, it undergoes dehydration to give unsaturated
hydrocarbon, i.e., ethene.

443K
C2H5OH(l) + H2SO4 (conc.) C2H5HSO4 + H2O

443K
C2H5HSO4 CH2 CH2 + H2SO4

Sulphuric acid has great affinity for water and therefore, it acts as a
strong dehydrating agent
 Reaction with Ethanoic Acid:
Esterification
• Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of little
concentrated sulphuric acid to form an ester called ethyl ethanoate.

• The reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol to form an ester is

called esterification. Common esters are sweet smelling or fruity
smelling liquids. These are, therefore, used in making perfumes and as
flavouring agents.
 Uses of Ethanol
• Ethanol or ethyl alcohol is a very useful organic compound. Some
important uses of ethanol are explained as follows:

1. As a fuel: Since ethanol burns with clear flame giving a large

amount of heat, therefore, it is used as a fuel. The largest single
use of ethanol is as a motor car fuel and fuel additive. For example,
gasoline (or petrol) sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous
ethanol. It is a clean fuel as it gives only harmless carbon dioxide
and water vapour as the combustion products on burning in
sufficient air (oxygen).
• 2. It is used in alcoholic drinks like whisky, rum, brandy. beer and other
liquors. For example, wine contains 10% to 20% ethanol and beer
contains about 6% ethanol.
• 3. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and is the most common
antibacterial hand sanitiser.
• 4. Ethanol is used in hospitals to sterilise wounds and syringes
• 5. Ethanol is a good general purpose solvent and is used as solvent in
paints, varnishes, tinctures, markers, perfumes.and deodorants. Tincture
of iodine is a solution of iodine in'ethyt alcohol.\
• 6. It is used in many healthcare and personal care products such as
cough suppressant and mouthwashes.
• 7. It is used in spirit lamp, spirit level and thermometers.
 Test for an Alcohol
• An alcohol or the presence of alcoholic group(-OH group) can be
tested by following tests:
• 1. Sodium metal test: Take the given organic compound in a dry test
tube. Add a small dry piece of sodium to it. If bubbles of hydrogen
are produced, it indicates that the given substance is an alcohol
• 2. Ester formation test: Take small quantity of the organic compound
in a test tube and to this, add small quantity of glacial ethanoic acid
and few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid and warm. A fruity
smell due to the formation of an ester, indicates the presence of
alcohol or alcoholic group.
 Harmful Effects of Drinking
Alcohol
• As stated earlier, ethanol is a constituent of all wines and liquors as the
intoxicating effects of ethanol consumption have been known since ancient
times. Medically, about 30 ml (or one peg) of ethyl alcohol has been
recommended to heart patients. It is in fact a stimulant and gives extra
energy. Therefore, alcoholic drinks are very popular especially in cold
countries. But its consumption is habit forming. When consumed in large
quantities, it tends to slow metabolic process and depresses the central
nervous system. This results in lack of coordination, mental confusion,
drowsiness, lowering of normal inhibitions and finally stupor. The person's
sense of judgment and timing and muscular coordination are seriously
impaired. Therefore, drunken driving leads to increased road accidents.
Heavy drinking over a long period of time causes damage to stomach, liver,
heart, etc. The liver disease known as cirrhosis caused by long-term
ingestion of alcohol may lead to death.
 Denaturation of Ethyl Alcohol
• Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol (methyl alcohol) even in small
quantity leads to dizziness, nausea, blindness and ultimately death.

• Wines and liquors are expensive as they are heavily taxed and are
sources of income to governments. But, ethanol is also used in
large quantities as industrial solvent and in that case it is not heavily
taxed. To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial use,
it is made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous substances like
methanol pyridine and copper sulphate to it. This is made blue by
adding a blue dye so that it can be easily identified. This is called
denatured alcohol. The process of making ethanol unfit for human
consumption is called denaturing of alcohol.
 ETHANOIC ACID: CH3COOH - ACETIC ACID
Ethanoic acid belongs to the family of organic compounds called
Carboxylic acids. It is commonly known as acetic acid. The name comes
from the Latin word acetum which means vinegar. Vinegar is a dilute 4-5%
aqueous solution of acetic acid. The presence of some other organic
compounds gives vinegar the greyish colour, usual taste and flavour
Vinegar is used for preserving food, sausage and pickles.
 Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid, having sour taste and smell of vinegar.
 The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K, hence it often freezes
during winter in cold countries into an icy mass. Therefore, pure ethanoic
acid is called glacial ethanoic acid or glacial acetic acid. Therefore, pure
ethanoic acid is called glacial ethanoic acid or glacial acetic acid. Therefore,
pure ethanoic acid is called glacial ethanoic acid or glacial acetic acid.
 Ethanoic acid is miscible with water.
 Chemical Properties of Ethanoic Acid

1. Acidic Character: Ethanoic acid is acidic in nature. Therefore, it turns blue litmus
solution all carboxylic acids turn blue litmus solution red.

# Carboxylic or organic acids are weaker acids as compared to inorganic or weak acids.
This is because carboxylic acids are partially ionized in solution to give smaller number
of H+(aq) ions. So, they are weak acids. On the other hand, mineral acids are more or
less completely ionised to give large number of H+(aq) ions in solution. So, they are
strong acids.

Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid also reacts with sodium, potassium, etc. and evolves
Hydrogen.
 Chemical Properties of Ethanoic Acid

2. Reaction with a base: Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base like NaOH to form
salt and water -

Reaction with metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates: Ethanoic acid decomposes

carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to evolve carbon dioxide and forming a salt;
 Chemical Properties of Ethanoic Acid
4. Reaction with alcohols: Esterification ; The reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol to
form an ester is called esterification. Therefore, when ethanoic acid Is warmed with ethanol in
the presence of a little concentrated sulphuric acid, sweet smeling ester called ethyl ethanoate
is formed.

The common esters are volatile liquids with a sweet smell or a fruity smell. Therefore, these
esters are used in making artificial flavors and essences.

Hydrolysis of Esters: Saponification

An important reaction of esters is that they get hydrolysed to give back the parent acid and
alcohol. Alkaline hydrolysis of esters is known as saponification because it is the basic
reaction in the production of soaps.
For example, when ethyl ethanoate is boiled with sodium hydroxide, then ethanoic acid
(sodium salt) and ethanol are produced,
Uses of Ethanoic Acid
 Acetic or ethanoic acid in the form
of vinegar is used as food and
salad dressing. It is also used as
a preservative of sauces and
pickles.
 It is used in the manufacture of
acetone and esters which are
used in perfumes.
 It is used in the preparation of
dyes, plastics and
pharmaceuticals.
 Vinegar is popular household
cleaner effective for killing most
molds(moulds), bacteria and
germs
 Test for Ethanoic Acid
The presence of carboxylic group or acidic group in an organic
compound is tested by the following methods:
1. Litmus test: All acids turn blue litmus solution or paper red.
2. Decomposition of carbonates and bicarbonates: Acids decompose
carbonates (e.g. Na2CO3) and hydrogencarbonates (e.g., NaHCO3)
to evolve carbon dioxide which turns limewater milky. For example,
Difference between Ethanol & Ethanoic Acid