Power Plant Equipment

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Thermal Power Plants

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 Thermal Power Plant as the title infers is the place of mechanism which converts
heat energy into electric power.

 Traditional thermal power plants also called combustion power plants, they
operate with energy produced by a steam boiler fueled by coal, natural gas,
heating oil, as well as by biomass. The steam activates a turbine which, in turn,
drives an alternator to produce electricity.

 Thermal Power Plants also called Thermal Power Generation Plant or Thermal
Power Station. A thermal power Plant/Station is used to convert heat energy to
electric power/Energy for household and commercial applications. In the process
of electric power generation, steam-operated turbines convert heat in to
mechanical power and then finally electric power.

 Thermal power generation is the process of obtaining thermal energy by burning

fuels such as LNG etc., to convert into electric energy by using power- generating
facilities.

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Saturated Vs Superheat Steam Conditions
o In a boiler, energy from the fuel is transferred to liquid water in order to create steam. Once
the water is heated to boiling point, it is vaporized and turned into saturated steam. When
saturated steam is heated above boiling point, dry steam is created and all traces of
moisture are erased. This is called superheated steam.
o Superheated steam has a lower density, so lowering the temperature does not revert it
back to its original liquid state. Dropping the temperature of saturated steam, however, will
revert it back to its old form of water droplets.
o Superheated steam has more energy and can work harder than saturated steam, but the
heat content is much less useful. This is because superheated steam has the same heat
transfer coefficient of air, making it an insulator and poor conductor of heat.
o Saturated steam is preferred for heating applications, while superheated steam is used
mostly in power generation and turbines. If steam is needed for both power generation and
heating, the steam can be superheated then desuperheated to its saturated condition.

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Working Principle of Thermal Power Plants
Thermal power station’s working principle is Heat released by burning fuel which
produces working fluid (steam) from water. Generated steam runs the turbine
coupled to a generator which produces electrical energy in Thermal Power Plants.

Fig. General layout of a thermal power plant 5

Working Principle of a Thermal Power Plant
The working fluid is water and steam. This is called feed water and steam cycle. The ideal
Thermodynamic Cycle to which the operation of a Thermal Power Station closely resembles is
the RANKINE CYCLE.
In a steam boiler, the water is heated up by burning the fuel in the air in the furnace, and the
function of the boiler is to give dry superheated steam at the required temperature. The
steam so produced is used in driving the steam Turbines. This turbine is coupled to
synchronous generator (usually three-phase synchronous alternator), which generates
electrical energy. The exhaust steam from the turbine is allowed to condense into the water in
steam condenser of turbine, which creates suction at very low pressure and allows the
expansion of the steam in the turbine to very low pressure. The principal advantages of the
condensing operation are the increased amount of energy extracted per kg of steam and
thereby increasing efficiency, and the condensate which is fed into the boiler again reduces
the amount of fresh feed water.
The condensate along with some fresh makeup feed water is again fed into the boiler by a
pump (called the boiler feed pump). In the condenser, the steam is condensed by cooling
water. Cooling water recycles through the cooling tower. This constitutes a cooling water
circuit.
The ambient air is allowed to enter the boiler after dust filtration. Also, the flue gas comes out
of the boiler and gets exhausted into the atmosphere through stacks. These constitute air and
flue gas circuit. The flow of air and also the static pressure inside the steam boiler (called
draught) is maintained by two fans called Forced Draught (FD) fan and Induced Draught
(ID) fan. 6
 Principal Components of a Thermal Power Plant
Boiler (1)
A huge boiler acts as a furnace transferring heat from the burning fuel to row upon row
of water tubes that entirely surround the flames.
Water is kept flowing through the tubes by a pump P1
Drum (2)
It contains water and steam at high pressure and produces a stream for the turbine.
It also receives water delivered by boiler-feed pump P2
High-pressure (HP) Turbine (3)
Converts thermal energy into mechanical energy by letting the steam expand as it moves
through turbine blades.
The steam is then passed through a reheater S3 in order to raise the thermal efficiency
and to prevent premature condensation.
Medium-pressure(MP) turbine (4)
It is similar to the HP turbine, except that it is bigger so that the steam can expand even
more. It contains water and steam at high pressure and produces a stream for the
turbine.
Low-pressure(LP) Turbine (5)
It is composed of two identical sections and it removes the remaining available energy from
the steam. The steam turbine can be of impulse or reaction turbine and sometimes
combination of both.

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Condenser (6)
It causes the steam to condense by letting it flow over cooling pipes S4. Coldwater from outside sources
flowing through pipes carries away the heat. The temperature of cooling water increases by 5 oC to 10 oC as
it flows through the condenser tubes. The condensed steam has a temperature of between 27 oC and 33 oC.
It is condensing steam that creates near-vacuum pressure of 5kPa. A condensate pump P2 removes the
lukewarm condensed steam and drives it through reheater (7) toward a feed water pump (8).

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 Thermal Power Plant

Fig. Schematic arrangement of thermal power plant 9

Reheater (7)
Heat exchanger receives hot steam, bled off from high-pressure turbine, to raise the
temperature of the feed water. Thermodynamic studies show that when some steam is
bled off this way, the overall efficiency increases.
Burner (9)
Burners supply and control the amount of gas, oil, or coal injected into boiler. Coal is
pulverized before it is injected. Similarly, heavy bunker oil is preheated and injected as an
atomized jet to improve surface contact with the surrounding air.
Forced-draft (10)
It furnishes the enormous quantities of air needed for combustion.
Induced-draft fan(10)
It carries gases and other products of combustion toward the cleansing apparatus and
from there to the stack and the outside air.
Generator (G)
Connected to three turbines converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Cooling Towers
Whenever one percent of a body of water evaporates, the temperature of the
remaining water drops to 5.8 oC. To cool the condenser, the phenomenon of evaporation
is used to produce the cooling effect.
Evaporation is produced by exposing large surface of water to surrounding air. The
simplest way to do this is to break up the water into small droplets and blow air through
this artificial rain. Warm cooling water flows out of the condenser is piped to the top of
the cooling tower where it is broken up into small droplets. As the droplets fall toward the
open reservoir below, evaporation takes place and the droplets are chilled. 10
In a turbine generator, a moving fluid—water, steam, combustion gases, or air—pushes a
series of blades mounted on a rotor shaft. The force of the fluid on the blades spins or
rotates the rotor shaft of a generator. The generator converts the mechanical (kinetic)
energy of the rotor to electrical energy.

An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy obtained from an

external source into electrical energy as the output. It is important to understand that a
generator does not actually ‘create’ electrical energy. Instead, it uses the mechanical
energy supplied to it to force the movement of electric charges present in the wire of its
windings through an external electric circuit. 11
Steam Power Generation
Steam power generation is a power generation method utilizing the expansion power of steam.
Hot and high-pressure steam is generated from heat by burning heavy crude oil, LNG (liquefied
natural gas), coal, etc. This steam is used to rotate the impeller in a turbine and activates a
generator connected to the turbine to generate electricity. Steam power generation uses
thermal energy with a relatively low temperature (600°C or lower).

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Combined Cycle Power Generation
Combined cycle power generation is a power-generation method combining a gas turbine and
a steam turbine.
High thermal efficiency can be achieved by combining two methods of power generation: gas
turbine power generation from rotating a generator utilizing expansion power by generating
combustion gas via burning fuels in the compressed air, and steam power generation from
rotating a steam turbine collecting the residual heat of the exhaust gas. In addition, as
combined cycle power generation comprises small gas turbines and steam turbines,
operation /stoppage can be immediately switched and can be operated in response to changes
in demand.

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Advantages of Thermal Power Stations:
 Economical for low initial cost other than any generating plant.
 Land required less than a hydropower plant.
 Since coal is the main fuel and its cost is quite cheap than petrol/diesel so the
generation cost is economical.
 Maintenance is easier.
 The thermal power plant can be installed in any location where transportation
and bulk of water are available.

Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plants

 The running cost for a thermal power station is comparatively high due to fuel,
maintenance, etc.
 A large amount of smoke causes air pollution. The thermal power station is
responsible for Global warming.
 The heated water that comes from a thermal power plant has an adverse effect
on the aquatic lives in the water and disturbs the ecology.
 The overall efficiency of the thermal power plants is low like less than 30%.

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Nuclear Power Plants
 A Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a
nuclear reactor. As is typical of thermal power stations, heat is used to generate steam that
drives a steam turbine connected to a generator that produces electricity.

 Nuclear power plants are a type of power plant that use the process of nuclear fission in
order to generate electricity. They do this by using nuclear reactors in combination with the
Rankin cycle, where the heat generated by the reactor converts water into steam, which
spins a turbine and a generator.

 Nuclear plants are very often used for base load since their operations, maintenance, and
fuel costs are at the lower end of the spectrum of costs. However, building a nuclear power
plant often spans five to ten years, which can accrue to significant financial costs,
depending on how the initial investments are financed.

 Nuclear power plants have a carbon footprint comparable to that of renewable energy such
as solar farms and wind farms, and much lower than fossil fuels such as natural gas and
brown coal. Despite some spectacular catastrophes, nuclear power plants are among the
safest mode of electricity generation, comparable to solar and wind power plants.

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 Table: The General Features of Different Nuclear Power Plant Types in Operation

Plant type/ PWR BWR Boiling PHWR LWGR GCR (LM) FBR Fast
Feature Pressurized light water Pressurized light water gas cooled, Breeder reactor
light water moderated heavy water cooled, graphite graphite
moderated and and cooled moderated and moderated moderated
cooled reactor reactor cooled reactor reactor reactor

Fuel Material LEUa LEUa Natural LEUa with Natural Plutonium mixed
MOXb MOX Uranium thorium Uranium with natural or
LEUa depleted uranium

Fissile material Converter Converter Converter Converter Converter Breeder

production
Moderator Light-water Light-water Heavy-water Graphite Graphite None
material
Neutron energy Thermal Thermal Thermal Thermal Thermal Fast
Reactor coolant Light-water Light-water Heavy-water Light-water Carbon Liquid Metal
dioxide
Number in 278 80 49 15 15 2
Operation
Main Countries USA, France, USA, Japan, Canada Russia UK Russia
Japan, Russia, Sweden
China

a
LEU stays for Low Enrichment Uranium
b
MOX stays for Mixed Oxide fuel, usually consists of plutonium blended with natural uranium, reprocessed uranium, or depleted uranium17
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Components and Operation of Nuclear Power Plant (NPP)
Nuclear Reactor
The reactor is a key component of a power plant, as it contains the fuel and its nuclear chain
reaction, along with all of the nuclear waste products. The reactor is the heat source for the
power plant, just like the boiler is for a coal plant. Uranium is the dominant nuclear fuel used in
nuclear reactors, and its fission reactions are what produce the heat within a reactor. This heat
is then transferred to the reactor's coolant, which provides heat to other parts of the nuclear
power plant.
Besides their use in power generation, there are other types of nuclear reactors that are used
for plutonium manufacturing, the propulsion of ships, aircraft and satellites, along with
research and medical purposes. The power plant encompasses not just the reactor, but also
cooling towers, turbines, generators, and various safety systems. The reactor is what makes it
differ from other external heat engines.

Steam Generation
The production of steam is common among all nuclear power plants, but the way this is done
varies immensely.
The most common power plants in the world use pressurized water reactors, which use two
loops of circling water to produce steam. The first loop carries extremely hot liquid water to a
heat exchanger, where water at a lower pressure is circulated. It then heats up and boils to
steam, and can then be sent to the turbine section.
Boiling water reactors, the second most common reactor in power generation, heat the water
in the core directly to steam, as seen in Figure 2.
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Turbine and Generator
Once steam has been produced, it travels at high pressures and speeds through one or more
turbines. These get up to extremely high speeds, causing the steam to lose energy, therefore,
condensing back to a cooler liquid water. The rotation of the turbines is used to spin an electric
generator, which produces electricity that is sent out the electrical grid.

Cooling Towers
Perhaps the most iconic symbol of a nuclear power plant is the cooling towers. They work to reject
waste heat to the atmosphere by the transfer of heat from hot water (from the turbine section) to
the cooler outside air. Hot water cools in contact with the air and a small portion, around 2%,
evaporates and raises up through the top. Moreover, these plants do not release any carbon dioxide
—the primary greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change. Click here to see how a cooling
tower works.
Many nuclear power plants simply put the waste heat into a river, lake or ocean instead of having
cooling towers. Many other power plants like coal-fired power plants have cooling towers or these
large bodies of water as well. This similarity exists because the process of turning heat into electricity
is almost identical between nuclear power plants and coal-fired power plants.

Efficiency
The efficiency of a nuclear power plant is determined similarly to other heat engines—since
technically the plant is a large heat engine. The amount of electric power produced for each unit of
thermal power gives the plant its thermal efficiency, and due to the second law of thermodynamics
there is an upper limit to how efficient these plants can be.
Typical nuclear power plants achieve efficiencies around 33-37%, comparable to fossil fueled power
plants. Higher temperature and more modern designs like the Generation IV nuclear reactors could
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potentially reach above 45% efficiency.
Fig 2. A boiling water nuclear reactor in combination with the Rankine cycle forms the basis
of a nuclear power plant.

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Nuclear Fuel Cycle–Enrichment

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Gaseous Diffusion Process
Average velocities of gas molecules at a given temperature depend upon their masses.
Therefore, in a gas made-up of molecules containing different isotopes, molecules
containing the lighter isotope will, on average, have velocities a little faster than those
containing the heavier isotope.
It is this small but useful velocity difference which the gaseous diffusion process
utilizes.
If the gaseous mixture is forced under pressure against a suitable porous “barrier,”
more of the lighter molecules will flow through the pores due to their higher velocity.
UF6 is extremely reactive with water, very corrosive to most common metals, and
incompatible with organic materials (e.g., lubricating oils). This chemical activity
dictates the use of metals such as nickel and aluminum. The corrosiveness of the
process gas also makes barrier production more difficult because the barrier quality
must be maintained over many years of operation.
To maximize the amount of separation pore sizes must be such that individual
molecules collide only with the pore walls rather than with each other.
Diffusive flow requires not only small barrier pores (less than two-millionths of an
inch in diameter), but also uniformity of pore size.

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Because the amount of separation by one pass through barrier material is dependent
on the difference in mass of the molecules, very small gaseous mixtures of U-235
and U-238 must undergo this diffusion process many times for meaningful
separation.
The gaseous compound used to carry out the diffusion is uranium hexafluoride
(UF6).
The basic concept of gaseous diffusion is illustrated the following Figure 1. The
diffusion takes place in any single stage in the process system. Gaseous UF6 is
introduced into the diffuser under pressure and made to flow along the inside of
barrier tubes. About one-half of the gas diffuses through the barrier and is fed to the
next higher stage. The remaining undiffused portion is recycled to the next lower
stage.

The diffused stream is slightly enriched with respect to U-235, and the undiffused
stream is depleted of U-235 to the same degree.
Single stages are connected together so as to accomplish significant enrichment.
Axial flow compressors are used in the larger stages to compress the gas to maintain
the inter stage flow. A gas cooler is incorporated in each converter to remove the heat
of gas compression.

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Figure 1. Gaseous diffusion stage

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Gas Centrifuge Process
A gas centrifuge as shown in the Figure 2. comprises an evacuated casing containing a
cylindrical rotor which rotates at high speed in an almost friction-free environment and into
which gaseous UF6 is fed.
It works with the small difference in molecular weight between UF 6 molecules containing the
U-235 atom and those containing the U-238 atoms.
The difference is exploited by imposing an artificial gravitational field on the gaseous mixture
of the two isotopes, creating a radial concentration gradient which then becomes an axial
gradient with countercurrent flow on the inner part in one direction and along the wall in the
opposite direction.
The degree of enrichment in a single centrifuge machine is dependent upon the mass difference
of the isotopes being separated, the length of the rotator, and the speed of rotation.
The UF6 introduced near the center of the rotor accelerates to approximately the speed of the
rotor. Centrifugal force causes the heavier U-238 molecules to move closer to the wall of the
rotor, producing partial separation of the U-235 and U-238 isotopes. This separative effect is
increased by an axial countercurrent flow of gas within the rotor. The enriched UF 6 is removed
through a scoop at the top, and the depleted through a scoop at the bottom. Because the desired
enrichment is not obtained in a single centrifuge, several machines must be connected in a
series, known as a “cascade”.
Only a small amount of gas will flow through a single centrifuge. Therefore, many machines
must be connected in parallel to achieve the total flow necessary for a large capacity plant.32
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Types of Reactors
The vast majority of the nuclear power units in service for
commercial electricity production (about 80%) are equipped with
light-water reactors (LWRs), which use light water as both coolant
and moderator.
There are two main types of LWRs:
 Pressurized-water reactor (PWRs)
 Boiling-water reactor (BWRs)
More than 65% of the commercial reactors in the United States are pressurized-water reactors
or PWRs. These reactors pump water into the reactor core under high pressure to prevent the
water from boiling.
The water in the core is heated by nuclear fission and then pumped into tubes inside a heat
exchanger. Those tubes heat a separate water source to create steam. The steam then turns an
electric generator to produce electricity.
The core water cycles back to the reactor to be reheated and the process is repeated. 36
Roughly a third of the reactors operating in the United States are boiling water reactors
(BWRs).
BWRs heat water and produce steam directly inside the reactor vessel. Water is pumped up
through the reactor core and heated by fission. Pipes then feed the steam directly to a turbine
to produce electricity.
The unused steam is then condensed back to water and reused in the heating process. 37
Advantages and disadvantages PWR and BWR
Each LWR design has its own advantages and disadvantages, and as a result, a competitive
economic market has existed between the BWR and PWR concepts since the 1960s. For
instance, although there are fewer mechanical components in the steam cycle of a BWR
design, additional components are required to support the reactor’s emergency core-cooling
system. Furthermore, the BWR vessel’s internal system is more complex, since it includes
internal recirculation pumps and complex steam separation and drying equipment that are not
found in a PWR design. On the other hand, even though the internals of the PWR are simpler, a
BWR power plant is smaller, because it has no steam generators. In fact, the steam generators
of a PWR—there are typically four of them in a big plant—are larger than the reactor vessel
itself.

The direct-cycle philosophy of a BWR design reduces heat loss between the core and the
steam turbine, but the BWR operates at lower pressures and temperatures than the PWR,
giving it less thermodynamic efficiency. Furthermore, because the BWR’s power density is
somewhat lower than that of the PWR, the pressure vessel must be built to a larger diameter
for the same reactor power. On the other hand, because the BWR operates at lower pressure,
its pressure vessel is thinner than the pressure vessel of a PWR.

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Similarities between PWR and BWR
Both Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) and Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) employ nuclear
fission reaction to generate thermal energy, which, in turn, is utilized to drive the turbine for
generating electricity.

Both PWR and BWR are thermal reactors, which indicate that the nuclear fission reaction is
initiated by the thermal neutron (it has energy of 0.025eV and corresponding speed of
2.2km/s at 20°C). On the contrary, fast reactors utilize fast neutrons (1–10 MeV energy).

Both PWR and BWR require 3–5% enriched uranium fuel. An enriched fuel has higher
percentage of U-235 isotope. In the naturally available uranium, U-235 isotope is only about
0.7%, and the rest is U-238 isotope. But this U-238 isotope is not fissile material (thus cannot
be used as nuclear fuel). Thus only 3–5% U-235 isotope available within the entire fuel can
undergo nuclear fission reaction to generate thermal energy, rest remains intact.

Both PWR and BWR employ only normal water or light water (H2O) as moderator, as coolant
and also as working fluid. On the contrary, heavy water reactors, gas cooled reactors and
graphite reactors can employ other materials (like heavy water, carbon dioxide, graphite) for
such purposes.

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Figure 1: PWR system flow diagram
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The fresh fuel installed in a typical PWR consists of cylindrical
pellets (using sintering method) of slightly enriched (3% U-235)
uranium oxide (UO2) of diameter approximately 3/8 in (≈ 1 cm) and
length approximately 0.6 in (≈1.5 cm).
A zircaloy tube of wall thickness 0.025 in (≈ 0.6 mm) is filled the
pellets to an active length of 12 ft. (≈360 cm) and sealed to form a
fuel rod (or pin).
Support, cladding, protect
The metal tube serves to
 provide support for the column of pellets
 provide cladding that retains radioactive fission products
 protect the fuel from interaction with the coolant
BWR fuel module
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Thousands of fuel pins composed of enriched UO2 in Zircaloy tubes.
They are arranged in square subassembly arrays of 8 x 8 to 10 x 10 pins.
Four subassemblies each contained in a Zircaloy shroud, make up a fuel module.
Subassemblies are individually orificed to control water/steam flow and assure a
uniform elevation at which boiling commences and a uniform steam quality as
coolant leaves the core.
In contrast, PWR fuel assemblies are open.
The four subassemblies in a fuel module are separated by cruciform-shaped control
blades that hydraulically driven in from the bottom of the core upwards.
Thousands of fuel pins composed of enriched UO2 in Zircaloy tubes.
They are arranged in square subassembly arrays of 8 x 8 to 10 x 10 pins.
Four subassemblies each contained in a Zircaloy shroud, make up a fuel module.
Subassemblies are individually orificed to control water/steam flow and assure a
uniform elevation at which boiling commences and a uniform steam quality as
coolant leaves the core.
After passing through the core, water that has not been vaporized must be
recirculated back to the bottom of the core. This is done by means of jet pumps
located around the periphery of the core.
Feed water enters the RPV at a height above the top of the core. The combined
effects of the recirculating and jet pumps force liquid water into the reactor core
from the bottom. The saturated steam is processed by steam separators and dryers
located above the core to remove moisture from the vapor that is sent to the high-
pressure turbine. Steam conditioning systems above the core is one reason that the
control blades enter the core at its base. The lower density steam in the upper
portion provides less moderation compared to the liquid water in the lower regions
of the core.
Figure: Schematic of a typical BWR
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Natural Uranium Heavy Water-Moderated and Cooled Reactors: Canada
deuterium uranium (CANDU) pressurized heavy-water reactor (PHWR)
 The main generic disadvantage of all LWRs is the use of enriched uranium, calling
for either international supply or domestic industrial enrichment capability.
 CANDU is the most efficient of all reactors in using uranium: it uses about 15%
less uranium than a pressurized water reactor for each megawatt of electricity
produced.
 In CANDU reactors, the moderator and coolant (both heavy water) are spatially
separated: the moderator is in a large tank (calandria), in which there are pressure
tubes surrounding the fuel assemblies.
 Each bundle has about 28 elements. There are about 4860 bundles in total with 12
or 13 such bundles in each pressure tube (for 500 MW plant).
 The advantage of this construction is that the whole tank need not be kept under
high pressure. The coolant flows in these tubes only.
 It is sufficient to pressurize the coolant flowing in the tubes. This arrangement is
called pressurized tube reactor made of Zircaloy alloy.
 Warming up of the moderator is much less than that of the coolant.
 The high temperature and high pressure coolant, similarly to PWRs, goes to the
steam generator where it boils the secondary side light water. Another advantage of
this type is that fuel can be replaced during operation and thus there is no need for
outages.
Figure: CANDU system diagram
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Reactor shutdown
Current HWR designs have two diverse, independent, fast-acting,
equally effective shutdown systems, referred to as Shutdown System 1
(SDS1) and SDS2.
SDS1 utilizes spring-loaded mechanical shutoff (absorber) rod
mechanisms.
Upon receipt of a reactor trip signal, an electromagnetic clutch in each
mechanism is de‑energized, releasing a stainless steel ‑clad cadmium
absorber element that drops into the moderator under gravity.
SDS1 is the primary method of quickly shutting down the reactor in an
accident.
Reactor Safety
 While their safety record is quite good when compared to fossil
fuel plants, the North American public generally views nuclear
power plants as dangerous.
 A small portion of this concern is justified, but almost all of it is
based on fear and ignorance.
 Only issues related to mining of uranium and the potential of a
catastrophic accident are mentioned here.