Introduction to Electrical Power

Systems

By k.rajendra
 Power and Energy are buzz words in todays world.

Electricity is emerged as basic necessity with Food,

Shelter and Clothing for human being.

Life without electricity has become highly unimaginable.

Electric locomotives, Heating, Cooling, Fans, Blowers,

Motors, Illumination are some applications that converts
electrical energy into useful work.
 Progress of any nation is measured in terms of per
capital consumption of electrical energy.(KWH consumed
per person per year)

India- 500 KWH /person per year

UK- 15 times that of India
US- 30 times that of India

Reasons of Popularity of electricity:-

Clean environment for user
Higher efficiency
Better controllability
Quick transfer of power from source to load
Energy conservation is simple
 Power Generation Scenario In India

Thermal Power --- 1,00,000MW

Hydro Power --- 65,000MW
Nuclear Power --- 10,000MW
Other sources --- 20,000MW

Total Installed Capacity--- 1,95,000MW

 Sources Of Electrical Power Generation

A.ConventionalSources
Thermal (Coal)
Nuclear
Gas
Water

B.Non conventional Sources

Wind
Solar- PV
Biomass
 Disadvantages Of Conventional Sources

Fossil fuels shall be depleted, forcing us to

conserve them and find alternative resources.
Toxic, Hazardous gases, Residues pollute

environment.
Overall conversion efficiency is very poor.
Sources are located at remote places with

reference to load, increasing transmission cost.

Maintenance cost is high.
 Coal Based Thermal Power Plant

India has rich stock of coal as natural resource.

Chemical energy stored in coal is transformed to

electrical energy.

Coal powder is fired in boiler that converts water into

steam at high temp. and pressure.

This steam is injected over the blades of steam turbine

(prime mover) in controlled way and hence, rotor of 3-
a.c. generator rotates.
 Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy at rated
voltage(10-30KV).

Used steam is cooled down to water using cooling towers and

condensers.

This preheated water is again injected in boiler tubes to

convert back to steam.

Flue gases are passed into atmosphere and fine particles of

ash are collected through ESP.

Ash(40% of coal weight) is collected and transported to AHP.

 Merits of Coal Thermal Plant

Coal is cheap and available in abundance at present.

It is a time tested process, so no experimentation is

required.

Less space required as compared to Hydro based

station and less hazardous than Nuclear power plant.

Less initial cost as compared to other conventional

process of power generation.
 Demerits of Coal Thermal plant

Calorific value (Kcal/Kg) of Indian coal is very low and

large ash content.

Huge volume of ash is produced daily and its disposal is

burning issue today.

Atmospheric pollution is very high.

Transportation of coal to plant and transmission of

generated power to load centre involves large expenses.
 (i) Supply of fuel

(ii) Availability of water

(iii) Transportation facilities

(iv) Cost and type of land

(v) Nearness to load centers

(vi) Distance from populated area

The whole arrangement can be divided into the following stages
for the sake of simplicity :

1.Coal and ash handling arrangement

2. Steam generating plant

3. Steam turbine

4. Alternator

5. Feed water

6. Cooling arrangement
 The coal is transported to the power station by road or rail and
is stored in the coal storage plant
From the coal storage plant, coal is delivered to the coal
handling plant where it is pulverized
The pulverized coal is fed to the boiler by belt conveyors
The coal is burnt in the boiler and the ash produced after the
complete combustion of coal is removed to the ash handling
plant and then delivered to the ash storage plant for disposal
The removal of the ash from the boiler furnace is necessary
for proper burning of coal.
 The steam generating plant consists of a boiler for the
production of steam and other auxiliary equipment for the
utilisation of flue gases.
 (i) Boiler

(ii) Super heater

(iii) Economizer

(iv) Air preheater

 The heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is utilised to
convert water into steam at high temperature and pressure
The flue gases from the boiler make their journey through
superheater, economiser, air pre-heater and are finally
exhausted to atmosphere through the chimney.
 The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed
through a superheater where it is dried and superheated by the
flue gases on their way to chimney.
Superheating provides two principal benefits. Firstly, the
overall efficiency is increased. Secondly, too much
condensation in the last stages of turbine (which would cause
blade corrosion) is avoided.
 An economiser is essentially a feed water heater and derives
heat from the flue gases for this purpose.
The feed water is fed to the economiser before supplying to
the boiler.
The economiser extracts a part of heat of flue gases to
increase the feed water temperature.
 An air preheater increases the temperature of the air supplied
for coal burning by deriving heat from flue gases.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere by a forced draught fan and
is passed through air preheater before supplying to the boiler
furnace.
The air preheater extracts heat from flue gases and increases
the temperature of air used for coal combustion
The principal benefits of preheating the air are:

Increased thermal efficiency and

Increased steam capacity per square metre of boiler surface
 The dry and superheated steam from the superheater is fed to
the steam turbine through main valve
The heat energy of steam when passing over the blades of
turbine is converted into mechanical energy
After giving heat energy to the turbine, the steam is exhausted
to the condenser which condenses the exhausted steam by
means of cold water circulation.
 The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator
The alternator converts mechanical energy of turbine into
electrical energy
The electrical output from the alternator is delivered to the bus
bars through transformer, circuit breakers and isolators
 The condensate from the condenser is used as feed water to
the boiler
The feed water on its way to the boiler is heated by water
heaters and economiser
This helps in raising the overall efficiency of the plant.
 In order to improve the efficiency of the plant, the steam
exhausted from the turbine is condensed by means of a
condenser
Water is drawn from a natural source of supply such as a river,
canal or lake and is circulated through the condenser
The circulating water takes up the heat of the exhausted steam
and itself becomes hot. This hot water coming out from the
condenser is discharged at a suitable location down the river
 In case the availability of water from the source of supply is
not assured throughout the year, cooling towers are used
During the scarcity of water in the river, hot water from the
condenser is passed on to the cooling towers where it is
cooled. The cold water from the cooling tower is reused in the
condenser
In a balanced draft boiler you actually have both F.D fan and I.D fan.
1. I.D stands for Induced draft Fan whereas F.D stands for Force Draft fan.
2. ID fan(Induced Draft Fan)basically pulls out flue gas from

ID fan(Induced Draft Fan)basically pulls out flue gas from

the furnace of boiler. It is located between dust
precipitators(ESPs) and Chimney. Obviously it handles hot
air/dust.
Whereas, FD fan(Forced Draft Fan)supplies the
required air into the furnace for combustion of fuel. It
handles air at normal temperature.
The capacity/power
rating of ID fan will be more than that of FD fan
 Three types of fuels can be burnt in any of steam generating
plant:
I. Solid fuel such as coal

2. Liquid fuel as oil and

3. Gaseous fuel as gas

 The handling of these fuels is an important aspect. The
following factors should be considered in selecting the fuel
handling system:
l. Plant fuel rate

2. Plant location in respect of fuel shipping

3. Storage area available.

 The coal from coal mines may be transported by the following
means
1. Transportation by sea or river

2. Transportation by rail

3. Transportation by ropeways

4. Transportation by road

5. Transportation of coal by pipeline

 1. It provides simplicity in installation and increased safety in
operation.
2. More economical than modes of transport when dealing
with large volume of coal over long distances
3. This system is continuous as it remains unaffected by the
vagaries of climate and weather
4. High degree of reliability.
5. Loss of coal during transport due to theft and pilferage is
totally eliminated
6. Man power requirement is low
 "Mechanical handling" of coal is preferred over "manual
handling" due to the following reasons
I. Higher reliability.
2. Less labor required.
3. Economical for medium and large capacity plants.
4. Operation is easy and smooth.
S. Can be easily started and can be economically adjusted
according to the need.
6. With reduced labor, management and control of the
plant becomes easy and smooth
7. Minimum labor is put to unhealthy condition.
8. Losses in transport are minimized.
 1 Needs continuous maintenance and repair

2 Capital cost of the plant is increased.

3 In mechanical handling some power generated is usually

consumed., resulting in less net power available for supply to
consumers
 1. Coal delivery
2. Unloading
3. Preparation
4. Transfer
5. Storage of coal
6 In-plant handling
7.weighing and measuring
8. Furnance firing

Block Diagram Of Coal Fired Thermal Plant

A nuclear power plant or nuclear
power station is a thermal power
station in which the heat source is a
nuclear reactor. As is typical in all
conventional thermal power stations
the heat is used to generate steam
which drives a steam turbine
connected to an electric generator
which produces electricity.
 Nuclear Thermal Power Plant

Huge amount of thermal energy is produced through

Nuclear Fusion and Fission process of radioactive
elements.

This thermal energy is used to produce steam that can be

utilized to rotate the turbine coupled to 3 PH a.c. generator.

Fusion is the process in which two light weight nuclei

combine to produce heavier nucleus, a neutron and lot of
exothermic energy.
 In fusion Deuterium and Tritium nuclei are fused to
produce heavy Helium, Neutron and 17.6 MeV of energy.

One gram of Deuterium contains 1,00,000 KWh of

energy which is 10 million times that released by
combustion of one gram of coal.

Fission is the reaction in which heavy nucleus is split in

to two or more lighter nuclei with release of neutrons,
fission fragment, gamma rays and lot of thermal energy.

Released neutrons has high KE and collides with other

nuclei resulting into secondary fission which again
produce same components as before.
 This process results into sustained chain reaction
producing huge amount of energy that can be utilized for
producing steam that is subsequently used for rotating
turbine.

The main requirement of fission is such that the reaction

should be self sustained in nature.

For self sustained reaction the substance should be

fissile, it should not decay quickly and should be
available in nature in moderate quantity.
 All radioactive elements are fissile and satisfy the
conditions as specified for self sustained reaction.
Uranium-235 is commonly used for the process.

When it accepts neutron, it is fissioned into Barium,

Krypton, neutrons, gamma rays and 200MeV energy.

All the time this huge heat energy is not required and if it
is not controlled then may result in disaster.

Speed of neutrons is controlled by moderators like

Graphite and heavy water to achieve critical speed of
reaction.
 Further more, control rods, like cadmium, are placed
between fuel rods that absorb neutrons for regulation of
reaction thereby to obtain power control of generators.

The control rods are pushed in and pulled out to

decrease and increase power output respectively.

Advantages of Nuclear Power Generation

Less quantity of fuel for generation of given amount of

energy compared to other sources.

High reliability, Efficient and less running cost.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Generation

Fuel is expensive and not available in abundance

everywhere.

High capital cost.

Maintenance cost is very high.

Nuclear waste disposal is a great problem.

Block Schematic for Nuclear Power Plant
Block Schematic for Hydroelectric Power
Plant
 Hydro-electric power is generated by the flow of water through
turbine, turning the blades of the turbine.

A generator shaft connected to this turbine also rotates and

hence generates electricity.

The main components of a hydel power plant are:

1. Dam/Reservoir/Large buffer tank
2. Penstock
3. Power House
a. Turbines
b. Generators
c. Step-up Transformers
Depending on the capacity, hydel power plants
are divided into the following categories :
 Hydel plants are normally not in a continuous operation mode and used
for peak periods during the day like the wee hours and in the evening.

Also, they are used when the continuously operating thermal plants go
into overhauling.

This is possible due to the less start up time required by hydro power
stations which is normally in few minutes as compared to thermal power
plant which is more than 8 hours.

The command for starting or shutting is issued by from the related Load
Dispatch Center (LDC) of that particular region
 Hydel plants have an efficiency of 75%.

The power delivered is given by the following

expression:

Power delivered = 7*H*dQ/dt Kilo watts,

Where,
H = Head in meters
dQ/dt = Rate of discharge in m3/s.
 Advantages of Hydro Power Generation

Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at

a constant rate
If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut,

stopping electricity generation

The build up of water in the lake means that energy can

be stored until needed, when the water is released to

produce electricity.
The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.

Hydropower is fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source.

Hydropower doesn't pollute the air like power plants that

burn fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or natural gas.
 Disadvantages of Hydro Power Plant

Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built to a very high
standard.

People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded,
must move out.

Hydro power plants can be impacted by drought. When water is not

available, the hydro power plants can't produce electricity.
 Block Schematic for Wind Power Plant

wind DC/DC DC/AC

rectifier utility line
generator converter inverter

The grid-connected application

wind DC/DC DC/AC AC load

rectifier
generator converter inverter

DC-DC DC load
Converter

battery

The stand-alone application

Wind Generator
Wind Zones in
India
 The wind energy is one of the most effective renewable power
and relevant technologies for its conversion in useful form.

India has the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the
world.

A Wind Energy Conversion System is a structure that

transforms the kinetic energy of the incoming air stream into
electrical energy.
There are two basic configurations namely vertical axis wind

turbines (VAWT) and horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT).

Today the vast majority of manufactured wind turbines are

horizontal axis with either two or three blades.

 Types of Wind Energy Conversion System
(WECS)
There are two types of Wind Energy Conversion System
(WECS).
1. Variable-speed WECS
2. Fixed-speed WECS.
Variable-speed wind turbines are currently the most used

WECS.
Fixed-speed WECS operate at constant speed and

Variable-speed WECS at variable speed.

In Fixed-speed WECS generated voltage and frequency is

constant but in Variable-speed WECS generated voltage

and frequency is varying with respect to wind speed.
 Advantages of Wind Energy System

The wind is free and with modern technology it can be

captured efficiently.
Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces, does

not cause green house gases or other pollutants.

Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power

grid can use wind turbines to produce their own supply.

Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means

a vast range of people and businesses can use them.

Single households to small towns and villages can make

good use of range of wind turbines available today.

 Disadvantages of Wind Power

The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero
to storm force.

This means that wind turbines do not produce the same amount
of electricity all the time.

There will be times when they produce no electricity at all.

Wind turbines are noisy.

Solar Energy
 A photovoltaic cell is the basic device that converts solar radiation into
electricity.

PV cell can be either circular in construction or square.

Cells are arranged in a frame to form a module. Modules put together

form a panel. Many Panels together form an array.
Each PV cell is rated in watt-peak (Wp).

Only a small part of the radiant energy that the sun emits into space
ever reaches the Earth, but that is more than enough to supply all our
energy needs. The energy which reaches earth surface is taken as 1
KW/ sq.m approximately
 Applications

Solar Water Heating : Solar energy can be used to

heat water. A solar water heater works a lot like solar
space heating. A solar collector is mounted on the roof
where it can capture sunlight.
Photovoltaic Electricity:- Photovoltaic comes from the words photo
meaning light and volt, a measurement of electricity. Sometimes
photovoltaic cells are called PV cells or solar cells for short.

Solar cells are made up of silicon, the same substance that makes
up sand. Silicon is the second most common substance on Earth.
Electricity is produced when sunlight strikes the solar cell, causing
the electrons to move around .
 Advantages of Solar Energy Systems
After initial investment, all the electricity produced is free.

Incentives and rebates from government and utility

companies offset the initial investment.

Clean, renewable energy source.

No transmission costs for stand alone systems.

Virtually no maintenance and no recurring costs

Ideal for remote locations that cannot be tied to the grid

 Solar Energy Disadvantages
High initial cost to purchase solar panel system

A relatively large area is required to install a solar system

The highest efficiency is dependent on full sun exposure

No electricity can be produced at night, and reduced production on cloudy/rainy days

 Interconnection of Generation, Transmission,
Distribution and Utilization Systems

Location for electrical power plant is normally decided

near the fuel base (coal, gas, water)
The huge power generated cannot be consumed in
the area in which it is generated.
The voltage level at which it is generated is between
10 to 30 KV.
The generated power is to be transmitted to the
locations where it is demanded like Industries, cities,
etc. which we generally refer as Load.
Distances between generation plant and place where it is
needed is very large.
Hence, to avoid Cu losses specifically, generated voltage
needs to be stepped up to 132 KV , 220 KV, 400 KV, 765 KV
and the latest 1200 KV for Transmission.

Once power is dispatched to Load Centres, the transmission

voltage levels are stepped down to 66KV, 33KV or 11KV for
distribution of power.

Once the power reaches to doorstep of consumer, the

distribution voltage level is again stepped down to utilisation
voltage level i.e. 440V or 650V
Single Line
Representation
of
Power System
 Change in voltage level is possible due to Transformer.

Generated power is transmitted and distributed through :

1. Overhead transmission Lines
2. Underground Cables.

Transmission voltage level is very high and distance between generation

point and receiving station is also very large.
So, for transmission of power, overhead system is adopted than
underground system considering the voltage drops and cost involved.
Generation, transmission and distribution is exclusively three phase in
nature and only three conductors are required.
Utilization network can be three phase or single phase. So, it requires 3
or 4 conductors ( additional conductor for neutral) respectively.
 Types of Distribution System
a) Three phase three wire system :
1. This system requires 3 wires or conductors for distribution
2.May be connected in Star or Delta. If Star connected, then star
point is connected to earth. i.e. zero potential
3.Load must be of 3 phase nature and balanced i.e. magnitude of
current should be same in each phase.
4.An electric load of single phase nature cannot be connected.
b) Three phase four wire system :
1. This system requires 4 wires or conductors for distribution.
2. Can be connected in Star only. The star point is also called
neutral.
3. An electric load of 3 phase and also single phase can be
connected.
3 Phase 3 wire transmission / 3 phase 4 wire utilization
 UPS
An uninterruptible power supply (ups) is a device that has
an alternate source of energy that can provide power when
the primary power source is temporarily disabled.
The switchover time must be small enough to not cause a

disruption in the operation of the loads.

It protects against multiple types of power disturbances.

and power outage

Offers protection against :
Equipment not operating properly
Computer and equipment damage
Data loss
Time and expense to recover back to where you were,
if even possible
 CRITICAL
AC SUPPLY AUTOMATIC LOAD
SWITCH
CONVERTER INVERTER (AC)
AC TO DC DC TO AC

BATTERY

INVERTER FAIL
 Inverters change Direct Current (DC) to
Alternating Current (AC).

Stand-Alone inverters can be used to convert

DC from a battery to AC to run electronic
equipment, motors, appliances, etc.
 Inverter Block Diagram

CRITICAL
AC SUPPLY AUTOMATIC LOAD
SWITCH
CONVERTER INVERTER (AC)
AC TO DC DC TO AC

BATTERY

AC FAIL

81
 UPS and Inverter Components

CONVERTER - AC TO DC
Surge Protection Devices (SPD) - Protects against SPIKES and
TRANSIENTS
BATTERY
STORED ENERGY DEVICE - Protects against
INTERRUPTIONS
INVERTER DC TO AC
WAVEFORM SYNTHESIS Protects against DC OFFSET and
INTERHARMONICS
FILTER Protects against HARMONICS, NOTCHING and
NOISE
VOLTAGE REGULATOR Protects against SAGS, SURGES
and FLUCTUATIONS

83
 Battery Safety
MAINTENANCE
INSPECT PERIODICALLY
REPLACE AS NEEDED

RISKS
ACID
ELECTRIC SHOCK
BURN
FLYING, MOLTEN METAL (EYES)
INJURIES RESULTING FROM CARRYING HEAVY BATTERY PACKS

DISPOSAL
DISPOSE OF PROPERLY
RECYCLE WHENEVER POSSIBLE

84
 Earthing

The potential of the earth is considered to be at zero for all

practical purposes.

Earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to earth

with a very low resistance wire, making it to attain earths
potential.

This ensures safe discharge of electric energy, which may

be due to reasons like failure of the insulation, line coming
in contact with the casing etc.

Earthing brings the potential of the body of the equipment

to ZERO i.e. to the earths potential, thus protecting the
operating personnel against electrical shock.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The earth resistance is affected by the following

factors:
1.Material properties of the earth wire and the
electrode
2.Temperature and moisture content of the soil
3.Depth of the pit
4.Quantity of the charcoal used
Importance of Earthing
Necessity of Earthing:
To protect the operating personnel from danger of shock

in case they come in contact with the charged frame due

to defective insulation.
To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced

load condition.
Protection of the equipments

Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from

overhead lines against lightning.

Methods of Earthing:
Plate earthing

Pipe earthing

Strip or wire earthing

Rod earthing
Difference between Earth wire and Neutral wire

Neutral wire :
1. In a 3 phase 4 wire system, the fourth wire is neutral wire.
2. It acts as a return path for 3 phase currents when the load is not
balanced.
3. In domestic single phase AC circuit, the neutral wire acts as a return
path for line current.

Earth wire :
1. Earth wire is actually connected to the general mass of the earth and
metallic body of the equipment.
2. It is provided to transfer any leakage current from the metallic body to
the earth.
 Protective Devices

Protection for electrical installation must be provided in the event of

faults such as
1.Short circuit
2.Overload
3.Earth faults

Short circuit

a. In this phenomenon, the current is diverted from its desired path.

b. Its magnitude may be 10 to 20 times full load current and power
losses are 100 to 400 times the normal value.
c. During short circuit, the rate of heat dissipation is very low or nil,
but the rate of rise of conductor temperature is very high
2.Overload
a. Any increase in the conductor temperature
above the recommended maximum temperature of associated
insulation is called as an overload.
b. If insulation fails, it will result in short circuit.
c. Overload is a very slow process and is not a
fault, but may lead to fault.

3.Earth faults.
a. Leakage currents are of small magnitude in
milliamperes or a few amperes.
b. Due to small magnitudes, earth leakage currents are
not detected by overload or SC protecting devices.
c. If not detected it may result into local heating and short
circuits.
d. These leakage currents if flowing through human
body, even for few seconds, may prove to be fatal for human
being.
The protective circuit or device must be fast acting and isolate
the faulty part of the circuit immediately.

.It also helps in isolating only required part of the circuit

without affecting the remaining circuit during maintenance.
The following devices are usually used to provide the
necessary protection:

Fuses

Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)

Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB) or Residual Current Circuit

Breaker (RCCB)

Molten Clad Circuit Breaker (MCCB)

Motor Protection Circuit Breaker (MPCB)

Air Circuit Breaker (ACB)

Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB)

SF6 Circuit Breaker

 Fuse

The electrical equipments are designed to carry a

particular rated value of current under normal
circumstances.

Under abnormal conditions such as short circuit,

overload or any fault the current raises above this value,
damaging the equipment and sometimes resulting in fire
hazard.

Fuses are pressed into operation under such situations.

Itis a short length of wire made of lead / tin /alloy of lead
and tin/ zinc having a low melting point and low ohmic
losses.

Under normal operating conditions it is designed to carry

the full load current.

If the current increases beyond this designed value due

any of the reasons mentioned above, the fuse melts (said
to be blown) isolating the power supply from the load .
The material used for fuse wires must have the following characteristics :
Low melting point
Low ohmic losses
High conductivity
Lower rate of deterioration
Re-wirable or kit -kat fuses
These fuses are simple in construction, cheap and available up-to

a current rating of 200A. They are erratic in operation and their

performance deteriorates with time.
HRC cartridge fuse
The high rupturing capacity or (HRC) fuse consists of a heat

resistant ceramic body.

Then silver or bimetallic fuse element is welded to the end brass

caps.
 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

MCBs are replacing the rewirable switch-fuse units for low power domestic
and industrial applications in a very fast manner.
The disadvantages of fuses like low SC interrupting capacity (say 3 KA),
etc. are overcome with high SC breaking capacity of 10 KA.
MCB is a combination of all three functions in a wiring system like
switching, overload and short circuit protection.
Overload protection by using bimetallic strips and short circuit protection by
using solenoid.
These are available in single pole, double pole, triple pole and four pole
versions with neutral poles if required.
The normal current ratings are available from 0.5 to 63 A with a
symmetrical short circuit rupturing capacity of 3-10 KA, at a voltage level of
230/440V.
 The 10 ampere DIN rail -mounted thermal
magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the
most common style in modern domestic
consumer units and commercial electrical
distribution boards throughout Europe. The
design includes the following components:
1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and
reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the
status of the circuit breaker (On or
Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed
so they can still trip even if the lever is held
or locked in the "on" position. This is
sometimes referred to as "free trip" or
"positive trip" operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the
contacts together or apart.
3. Contacts - Allow current when touching
and break the current when moved apart.
7. Solenoid 4. Terminals
8. Arc divider/extinguisher 5. Bimetallic strip.
6. Calibration screw - allows the
manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip
current of the device after assembly.
 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
None of the protection devices like MCB, MCCB, etc. can protect the human life
against electric shocks or avoid fire due to leakage current.
The human resistance noticeably drops with an increase in voltage. It also
depends upon the duration of impressed voltage and drops with increase in time.
As per IS code, a contact potential of 65 volts is within tolerable limit of human
body for 10 seconds, where as 250 Volts can be withstood by human body for 100
milliseconds.
The actual effect of current through human body varies from person to person
with ref. to magnitude and duration.
The body resistance at 10 volts is assessed to be 19 k for 1 second and 8k
for 15 min. At 240 V, it is 3 to 3.6 k for dry skin and 1 to 1.2 k for wet skin.
ELCBs are available in sensitivity of 30, 100 and 300 mA. IEC specify 30 mA
sensitivity ELCB for human life protection.
They are also called Residual current circuit breakers (RCCB)