Contents of the course

- 1. Matrices and operations with matrices.

- 2. Determinants. Properties of determinants.
- 3. Principal minor and rank of a matrix.
- 4. Inverse of a square matrix.
- 5. Systems of linear algebraic equations.
- 6. Eigenvectors and eigenvalues.
- 7. Quadratic forms.
- 8. Vector algebra.
- 9. Coordinate systems.
- 10. Algebraic lines on plane.
- 11. Algebraic surfaces in space.
- 12. Linear spaces. Linear mappings and transformations.

1
 1. MATRICES AND MATRIX OPERATIONS

1.1. NUMERICAL MATRICES

An m  n matrix A is a set of m  n numbers, represented by a rectangular array of m rows and

n columns:
 a11 a12 ... a1n 
 
a a 22 ... a2n 
A   21 или A  (aij ) , i  1,..., m ; j  1,..., n .
   
 
a am 2 ... a mn 
 m1
Numbers, which form the matrix, are called matrix elements: aij – element, that is placed
on the intersection of the i -th row and the j -th column. Matrix elements are expected to be real
numbers.

Example 1.1. Determine matrix sizes m and n :

1 0
  1 0 4 2 1
A   2 3 , B    , c  1 2 3 , d    .
 4 2  3 6 8 1   2
 

2
 Two matrices A and B are called equal ( A  B ), if they have
the same size ( m  n ) and their corresponding elements are equal:
aij  bij , i  1,..., m ; j  1,..., n .
In general case a matrix ( m  n ) is called rectangular. In
particular, if a matrix consists of a single column ( n  1 ) or a single
row ( m  1 ), it is called column-matrix or row-matrix (or simply
vector or row), respectively. Row-matrices and column-matrices are
frequently denoted by lowercase letters (in example 1.1: c – row, d
– vector). A matrix of size 11 is simply a number (the only element
of matrix).
A matrix with the same Secondary diagonal
number of rows ( m ) and columns  a11 a1n 
 
( n ), is called a square matrix (of  
order n). Elements a11 , a22 ,…, ann a a nn 
 n1
form the main diagonal of a square Main diagonal
matrix (dash line on fig. 1.1, which Fig. 1.1

connects the upper-left corner of the

matrix (element a11 ) with the lower-right corner (element ann )). The
diagonal that connects the lower-left corner (element an1 ) with the
upper-right corner (element a1n ), is called secondary.
3
  a11 0 ... 0 
 
 0 a22 ... 0 
A square matrix A , with all elements, situated out of the main
  
 
 0 0 ... ann 

diagonal, equal to zero, is called diagonal and denoted by diaga11 , a22 ,..., ann  .
A special case of a square matrix is a matrix
1 0 ... 0
 
0 1 ... 0
E  ,
   
 
0 0 ... 1 

which is called identity (of n -th order) and denoted by E (or E n ).
If all the elements of a square matrix, situated below (above) main diagonal, are equal to
zero, then this matrix is called upper-triangular (lower-triangular). Fig. 1.2 demonstrates diagonal
and triangular matrices (now and later we will suppose that matrix’s part, denoted by О symbol,
consists of zero elements, and parts, denoted by * symbol and lines, consists of arbitrary elements).
Notice, that a diagonal matrix, particularly an identity matrix, is a lower and an upper-triangular
simultaneously.
A matrix with all the elements equal to zero is called zero matrix.
Upper-triangular Lower-triangular
Diagonal

О * О
О О *
4
Fig. 1.2
Example 1.2. Define matrix types

1 2 1
 0 0 0    0 0  0 0 1 0
A    , B   0 4 5  , C    , D    , E    ,
 0 0 0  0 0 9 1 0  0 0 0 1
 
1 0 0 1 0 0  2 0 0
     
F   0 1 0 , G   2 3 0 , H   0 2 0 .
0 0 1 4 5 6   0 0 1
    

5
 1.2. MATRIX OPERATIONS

1.2.1. MATRIX ADDITION

Let A  (aij ) and B  (bij ) be matrices of the same size m  n .

Matrix C  (cij ) of the same size m  n is called the sum of matrices A and B , if its elements
are equal to the sum of the corresponding elements of matrices A and B :
cij  aij  bij , i  1,..., m ; j  1,..., n .

The sum is denoted by C  A  B .

Matrix addition is defined only for matrices of the same size and is calculated element-wise.
From the definition it comes that it is possible to sum only matrices of the same size: e.g. it
is impossible to find sums
1 2  5  3
     or 1 2    .
3 4 6  4
1 2 0 1
   
Example 1.3. Find the sum of two matrices A   3 4  , B   1 0  .
5 6 0 0
   
 By adding the corresponding elements we get
1 2 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 3
       
C  3 4  1 0   3 1 4  0   4 4 . 
5 6   0 0   5  0 6  0   5 6 
           6
( 32 ) ( 32 ) (32 )
 1.2.2. MULTIPLICATION OF MATRIX BY NUMBER

A product of a matrix A  (aij ) and a number  is the matrix C  (cij ) of the same sizes as
matrix A , which elements are equal to the product of number  and the corresponding element of
matrix A :
cij    aij , i  1,  , m ; j  1,  , n .

The product is denoted by   A or A   . Multiplication of a matrix by number is done

element-wise. It is possible to multiply any matrix by a number, each element should be multiplied
by this number.

1 2
 
Example 1.4. Find the product of matrix A   3 4  and number 2 .
5 6
 

 By multiplying each element of matrix A by 2, we get

1 2 1 2 2  2  2 4 
     
C  2  A  A  2  2  3 4  3  2 4  2   6 8  . 
 5 6   5  2 6  2  10 12 
     

7
A matrix (1)  A is called the opposite matrix of A and denoted by  A .

A sum of matrixes B and  A is called its difference and denoted by B  A .

To find the difference B  A it is necessary to subtract the elements of matrix A from the
corresponding elements of matrix B . Subtraction is correct only for matrixes of the same
size.
1 2 0 1
   
Example 1.5. Let A   3 4 , B   1 0  . Find differences B  A and A  B .
5 6 0 0
   
 By subtracting the corresponding elements, we get

 0 1   1 2   0  1 1  2   1 1 
B  A   1 0    3 4    1  3 0  4    2 4  ,
 0 0   5 6   0  5 0  6   5 6 
       

1 2  0 1  1  0 2 1   1 1 
A  B   3 4    1 0    3  1 4  0    2 4  . 
5 6 0 0 5  0 6  0  5 6
       

8
 LINEAR MATRIX OPERATIONS

1. Matrix addition;

2. Multiplication of a matrix by a number.

Properties of linear matrix operations coincide with the properties of addition (subtraction)
of algebraic expressions (e.g. polynomials) and multiplication of an algebraic expression by a
number.
For any matrices A , B , C of the same size and arbitrary numbers  ,  the following
equations are correct:
1. A  B  B  A ;
2.  A  B   C  A  B  C  ;
3.   A  B     A    B ;

4.     A    A    A ;
5.     A      A ;
6. 1 A  A .

9
 1.2.3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

Let matrix A  (aij ) of sizes m  p and B  (bij ) of sizes p  n .

A matrix C of sizes m  n with elements cij that are calculated by the formula
cij  ai1  b1 j  ai 2  b2 j    aip  b pj , i  1,.., m ; j  1,.., n ,

is called the product of matrices A and B and denoted by С  AB .

Multiplication of matrix A by matrix B is defined only for consistent matrices, that satisfy
the following property: the number of columns of matrix A is equal to the number of rows of
matrix B :

C  A B .
m n m p p  n

Let’s consider the procedure of finding a matrix product in detail.

To find the element cij on the intersection of the i -th row and the j -th column of matrix С ,
it is necessary to separate out the i -th row of matrix A and the j -th column of matrix B . They
consist of the same number of elements because matrixes A and B are consistent.
Then it is necessary to find the sum of all pairwise products of the corresponding elements:
the first element of the i -th row is multiplied by the first element of the j -th column, the second
element of the i -th row is multiplied by the second element of the j -th column, etc. and the results
are summed up.

10
11
 In the product A B matrix A is called the left-side multiplier for B and it is said that matrix
B is multiplied by matrix A from the left.
In a similar manner matrix B is called the right-side multiplier for A and is said that matrix
A is multiplied by matrix B from the right.
Note, that in general case A  B  B  A , but there are square matrices, which product is
unaffected by multiplier permutation.
Matrices A and B are called the permutation matrices, if
A B  B  A .

Permutation matrices can only be square matrices of the same order.

In particular, it can be showed that diagonal matrices of the same order are permutation matrices.
For every square matrix A of order n the following equations are correct:
A E  E  A  A ,
where E is an identity matrix of order n . In other words, an identity matrix and any square matrix
of the same order are permutation matrices.
For every matrix A the following equations are correct
A  O  O and O  A  O ,

where O is a zero matrix of the appropriate order, i.e. a square zero matrix and any square matrix of
the same order are permutation matrices.

12
 Properties of matrix multiplication

Let  be an arbitrary number; A , B , C – arbitrary matrices, for which the operations of

multiplication and addition on the left side are defined. Then the operations on the right side are
defined and the following equations are correct:
1. A  B  C  A  B  C  ; 2. A  B  C   A  B  A  C ;
3. A  B  C  A  C  B  C ; 4.   A  B     A B .
1 0
1 2 1  
Example 1.6. Let A    , B   0 1  . Find the products A B and B  A .
 0 1 2 1 1
 
 By the definition of matrix multiplication, we get
1 0
1 2 1    1 1  2  0  1 1 1  0  2 1  1 1   2 3 
A  B      0 1        ;
  0 1 2 0  1  1  0  2  1 0  0  1  1  2  1 2 3
23 3 2   1 1      
  2 2

1 0 1  1  0  0 1  2  0  1 1  1  0  2   1 2 1
  1 2 1    
B
   A   0 1 
    
  0  1  1  0 0  2  1  1 0  1  1  2   0 1 2 .
0 1 2
3 2 23  1 1     11  1  0 1 2  11 11  1  2   1 3 3 
       
3 3
Both products A B and B  A are defined, but they are matrices of different sizes, i.e. A  B  B  A . 

13
 Power of matrix

Multiplication A A (matrix A by itself) is defined for any square matrix A (of order n ). So
it is possible to define any integer nonnegative power of a matrix, as

A0  E , A1  A , A 2  A  A , A3  A2  A ,…, Am  Am 1  A , … .

Note, that the ordinary properties of a power with natural index are correct:

A k  Al  Al  A k  A k  l , A   A
k l kl
.

Polynomial of matrix

Having defined the operations of matrix addition, multiplication by a number and a power of
a matrix it is possible to get polynomial of matrix.
Let pm ( x)  a0  a1x  a2 x 2  ...  am x m be a polynomial (power m ) of variable x , where A is a
square matrix of order n .
An expression
2 m
pm ( A)  a0 E
  a1 A  a2 A  ...  am A
A0

is called the polynomial of a matrix A . A polynomial pm A is a square matrix of the n -th order.

17
 1 2 
Example 1.11. Find A3 , given that A    .
1 1 
 By the definition of a power of a matrix we get
3
3 1 2  1 2  1 2  1 2   3 4  1 2   7 10 
A                      .
1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1   2 3  1 1   5 7 

 2  1
Example 1.12. Find p2 ( A) , given that p2 ( x)  x 2  5 x  3 , A    .
  3 3 
 Using the definition of the polynomial of a matrix:
 2  1  2  1  2  1 1 0
p2 ( A)        5     3    
  3 3    3 3    3 3   0 1 

 7  5   10  5   3 0   0 0 
            . 
  15 12    15 15   0 3   0 0 

18