Unit Two

Formulation of the Research

problem
 2. Defining the research problem
A research problem, in general, refers to some
difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
In research processes, the first step happens to be
identifying and properly formulating a research
problem.
 The researcher first must find any social,
economic, business problem in general term and
then formulate it into research problem. The
researcher may find the problem and formulate in 2
 2.1 The Importance of Formulating a
Research Problem
Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated
is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the
need for defining a research problem.
The problem to be investigated must be defined
unambiguously for that will help to discriminate
relevant data from the irrelevant ones.
A proper definition of research problem will enable
the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-
defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like:
What data are to be collected? What characteristics of
data are relevant and need to be studied? What 3
The first and most important step in research
process.
Some of the importance are;
A. It serve as foundation for any research work
• It is like the identification of a destination before
starting undertaking a journey. In similar fashion, in
the absence of a clear research problem, a clear and
economical plan is impossible. or
• A research problem is like the foundation of a
building. The type and design of the building is
dependent up on the foundation. If the foundation is
well designed and strong, you can expect the
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building to be.
B. It guides other research activities
• A research problem may take a number of
forms from the very simple to the very
complex. The way you formulate a problem
determines almost every step that follows:
– The type of the study design that can be used;
– The type of sampling strategy that can be
employed;
– The research instrument that can be used or
developed;
– The type of analysis that can be undertaken;
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C. It determine the quality of outcomes as it is
inputs
• The formulation of a problem is like the “input” in
to a study, and the “Output” is the quality of the
contents of the research report.
D. It enables us to see what kind of r/ship to be
explored among variables.
• Research usually looks at the relationship among
variables; dependent variable, independent variables
and intervening variables. If the research problem is
well defined one can clarify the whole variables and
clearly go for research.
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 2.2 General Principles of Problem Formulation

i. Be sure that the problem exists.

ii.Learn as much as possible about the problem to be
solved.
iii. Employ the most feasible or most efficient method
of solution or both. This requires a judicious
consideration of cost, time, manpower etc.
iv. Consider alternate or substitute formulations in
case the original one is not feasible.
v. Formulate the problem systematically.
vi. Do not try to solve complex problems by
simple formulations.
vii. Be aware of the possibility that the problem7 in
 2.3 Evaluation of a Research Problem

i. Is the problem in line with my goal expectations

and the expectation of others?
ii.Will the solution of this problem advance
knowledge appreciably.
iii. Will the findings be of practical value.
iv. What will be the breadth of application in
terms of years of applicability and range of people
that can benefit from the study.
v. Will it duplicate the work that has been done or is
being done adequately by someone else.
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vii. Do I have access to the tools, equipment,
laboratory, subjects etc. necessary to conduct the
investigation.
viii. Do I have the time and money to complete it.
ix. Can I obtain adequate data.
x.Does the problem meet the scope, significance and
topical requirement of the institution to which I will
submit the report.
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 Some useful questions to consider in the formulation of a problem:

i. What current and previous studies have been done

on the issues to be studied?
ii.What is the available information on the
magnitude, nature and causes of the problem?
iii. What are the present gaps in knowledge?
iv. What makes the problem worth studying?
v. Why has the problem not been tackled yet?
vi. What do you intend to do to fill the gaps or
solve the problem?

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vii. What is the conceptual framework on which
your study will be based and what are the tentative
hypotheses to be employed in answering the
questions?
viii. Does the solution to the problem have any
practical or theoretical significance?
ix. What are the social, economic, political,
technical and environmental considerations
involved?
x.Have you stated the assumptions related to the
study?
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 2.4 Literature Review
A literature review is an account of what has been
published on a topic by accredited scholars and
researchers.
It is not just a descriptive list of the materials
available, or a set of summaries.
Literature review uses available documents (both
published and unpublished) on the topic, which
contain information, ideas, data and evidence
written from a particular standpoint to fulfill certain
aims or express certain views on the nature of the
topic.
12
A literature review is an examination of the research
that has been conducted in a particular field of
study.
Hart (1998) defines it as:
The selection of available documents (both
published and unpublished) on the topic, which
contain information, ideas, data and evidence.
[This selection is] written from a particular
standpoint to fulfill certain aims or express certain
views on the nature of the topic and how it is to be
investigated, and
The effective evaluation of these documents in
relation to the research being proposed. 13
It is very important for the researcher to distinguish
the various types of source materials that should
be consulted as each contributes in its own way. The
following are common categories of literature:
 Theoretical works and reviews

 Methodological reviews: books and journals on

research methods.
 Original findings and review of related research:
dissertations, theses, research reports, etc. 14
 2.4.1 Purpose of literature review

The purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge

and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their
strengths and weaknesses are.
It can reveal sources of data that have not been known to
the researcher.
Expands the introductory chapter to address the questions
raised.
Provides the theoretical basis for the research question
It can suggest a method or technique of tackling the research
problem
Helps the researcher in the interpretation of results or
findings.
Helps the researcher to outline the implications of his study
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 2.4.2 Types of reviewed literature
Context reviews- most common reason for writing a literature
review
 It creates a link to a developing body of knowledge
 Usually appears at the beginning of a report or article
 Can emphasize how the current research continues developing
a line of thought
Historical review:
 traces the development of an idea or shows how a particular
issue or theory has evolved over time.
Theoretical reviews:
 present different theories that purport to explain the same
thing, then evaluate how well each accounts for findings.
 Compare theories for the soundness of their assumptions,
logical consistency and scope of explanation. 16
Integrative review:
• presents the current state of knowledge – pull
together different research report – a growing
area of knowledge.
• Researchers may publish such valuable reviews as
an article to provide a service to other researchers.
Methodological review:-
• The researcher evaluates the methodological
strength of past studies
• Describes conflicting results and show how different
research designs, sample measures ,etc account for
the different results.
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 2.4.3 How to obtain relevant literature
The beginning of literature review is first to
systematically breakdown the title of the study into
key words, phrases, main headings and sub-
headings.
This is very essential; Otherwise a great deal of time
will be wasted. There are many potential sources of
information about what literature you need to read
and where to find it.
• Your supervisor; experts;
• Bibliographies in the literature you read;
• Online searches on the worldwide web;
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• Newsgroups on the internet; and
• Your fellow students.
The next step is approaching specific sources of
information through literature search using the
computers in the library or card catalogues where
computerized libraries are not available.
In literature review, it is a common practice to
begin with most general works and then proceed to
more specific sources on the subject particularly
journals, working backward in time until adequate
coverage is obtained.
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 2.4.4 Suggestions on reviewing the literature
The task of reviewing is among the most difficult
section for a beginning researcher.
As a piece of writing, the literature review must be
defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research
objective, the problem or issue you are discussing,
or your argumentative thesis.
 It is not necessary to review all the literature
in the field particularly if you are dealing
with a specific research topic.
 What you need are materials that have
direct relevance to the study.
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Enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a
literature review lets you gain and demonstrate
skills in two areas:
(i) information seeking: the ability to scan the
literature efficiently, using manual or computerized
methods, to identify a set of useful articles and
books critical appraisal:
(ii) The ability to apply principles of analysis to
identify unbiased and valid studies.

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In reviewing the literature, the researcher should
bear in mind the following questions and seek the
answers:
 What variables are known to be related to the
problem in which I am interested?
 How have these variables been defined and
described by others?
 How have these variables been manipulated in
previous studies?
 Is the previous research on the specific variables
methodologically sound?
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 Notes and Indexes
One of the most troublesome problems a researcher
has to face is that of preserving in accessible form
information that he/she has acquired from reading.
The researcher must develop a method for recording
and filing notes that maximize accuracy and minimize
time spent on clerical tasks.
Note cards or identical size sheets of paper provide
convenient materials for recording data. If a computer
is available, it can do the job. In any case the note
cards should include the following information.
 Complete bibliographic listing including the library
call number placed at the top of the card. 23
• The page number from which each specific item of
information has been taken.
• The exact wording of passages which may be used
later as quotations should be recorded.
• The data can then be filed alphabetically by author.

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 2.5 Developing Objectives and Hypothesis
Objectives are statements that indicate in a more specific
terms what the researcher intends to accomplish.
They are derived from the general statement of the problem.
The investigator breaks down the problem into several
manageable components and state specific objectives or ends
sought by the study.
2.5.1 General Guidelines for Developing Objectives
This section should specify the measurable outcomes of the
research, i.e., end products.
Objectives must be typically very brief (specific) and
achievable. Objectives can be general/broad and or specific.
The general objective provides a short statement of the
scientific goal being pursued by the research. The specific
objectives are operational in nature. 25
 Major characteristics of objectives:
• Objectives must be specific and concrete statements
which appear to be achievable.
• The objectives should neatly fit the statement of the
problem.
• The objectives should not propose to do things where
the design of the study is not capable of achieving.
• The objectives should be stated in their approximate
order of importance. 26
 2.6 Hypotheses

Hypothesis is a proposition (a working assumption) about

the relationship between two or more variables.
It is a statement of specific expectations or
intelligent guesses about the population involved.
Hypotheses are derived from the observations and
relationships accepted as facts in the statement of the
problem.
They provide the guidelines for the type of data and
techniques necessary for analysis. The main purpose is
to give an indication of relationships between variables.
Hypotheses are important bridges between
empirical inquiry and theory.
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The basis for correct formulation of hypotheses is the
knowledge of the researcher.
The broader the experience of the researcher in
relating theory to applied problems, the more efficient
he will be in formulating appropriate hypotheses.
Such assumptions or propositions, which may or may
not be true are called statistical hypotheses.
In many instances, we formulate a statistical
hypothesis for the sole purpose of rejecting or
nullifying it, such hypotheses are called null
hypotheses and are denoted by Ho.
Following from the above there are two kinds of
hypotheses are available: 28
The Null Hypotheses(Ho): is a non-directional statement of
condition between variables.
It states that there is no significant difference between
two parameters.
The null hypothesis asserts that observed differences or
relationships merely result from chance errors inherent in
the sampling process.
The Alternative/Research hypotheses(Ha): It is a directional
statement of a relationship between variables. It states that
there is significant difference between two parameters.29
 Type I and Type II errors

if we reject a hypothesis when it should be accepted

we say that a type I error has been made.
If on the other hand, we accept a hypothesis when it
should be rejected we say that a type II error has
been made.
In either case a wrong decision or error in judgment
has occurred.
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 Level of significance:

In testing a given hypothesis the maximum

probability with which we would be willing to risk a
Type I error is called the level of significance.
In practice a level of 0.05 or 0.01 is customary. If
we choose say 0.05 or 5% level of significance it
means that these can be 5 chances in 100 that we
would reject the hypothesis when it should be
accepted,
i.e., we are about 95% confident that we have made
the right decision. In such case we say that the
hypothesis has been rejected at 0.05 level of
significance. 31
 Characteristics of Hypotheses

Hypotheses must:
 Be specific.
 Be conceptually clear in terms of common definitions.
 Be testable by available techniques.
 Be related to a body of theory.
 Be capable of verification or rejection within the limits
of the research resources.
 Be stated to provide direction for the research.
 Be formulated as causal relationships with If-then
implication.
 As a group be adequate and efficient in suggesting
means to one or more meaningful solutions to the 32