Manual Work & Worker-Machine Systems

Sections:
1. Manual Work Systems
Chapter 2 2. Worker-Machine Systems
3. Automated Work Systems
4. Determining Worker and Machine
Requirements
5. Machine Clusters
Three Categories of Work Systems
1. Manual work system
 Worker performs one or more tasks without the aid
of powered tools (e.g. hammers, screwdrivers,
shovels)

2. Worker-machine system
 Human worker operates powered equipment (e.g.
a machine tool)
 Physical effort (less)
 Machine power(more)

3. Automated work system

 Process performed without the direct participation
of a human worker
 Manual Work System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Worker-Machine System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Automated System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Some Definitions
 Work unit – the object that is processed by the work
system

 Workpiece being machined (production work)

 Material being moved (logistics work)
 Customer in a store (service work)
 Product being designed (knowledge work)

 Unit operations – tasks and processes that are treated

as being independent of other work activities

 As opposed to sequential operations (sequence of

operations required to manufacture a product or deliver a
service)
 Manual Work Systems
 Most basic form of work in which human body
is used to accomplish some physical task
without an external source of power

 With or without hand tools

 Even if hand tools are used, the power to operate
them is derived from the strength and stamina of a
human worker
 Hairbrush vs hair dryer

 Of course other human faculties are also

required, such as hand-eye coordination and
mental effort
 Pure Manual Work
 Involves only the physical and mental
capabilities of the human worker without
machines or tools.
 Material handler moving cartons in a warehouse
 Workers loading furniture into a moving van without
the use of dollies
 Dealer at a casino table dealing cards
 Office worker filing documents
 Assembly worker snap-fitting two parts together
 Manual Work with Hand Tools
 Manual tasks are commonly augmented by use
of hand tools.

 Tool is a device for making changes to objects

(formally work units) such as cutting,
grinding,striking, sequeezing
 Scissor, screwdriver, shovel

 Tools can also be used for measurement

and/or analysis purposes

 Workholder to grasp or poisiton work units

Repetitive vs. Nonrepetitive Tasks
 Repetitive Task
 Work cycle is relatively short (usually a few minutes
or less)
 High degree of similarity from one cycle to the next

 Nonrepetitive Task
 Work cycle takes a long time
 Work cycles are not similar

 In either case, the task can be divided into

work elements that consist of logical groupings
of motions
 One Best Method Principle
 Attributed to Frank Gilbreth
Of all the possible methods that can be used to
perform a given task, there is one optimal
method that minimizes the time and effort
required to accomplish it
 A primary objective in work design is to
determine the one best method for a task, and
then to standardize its use
 Cycle Time Variations
 Once the method has been standardized, the
actual time to perform the task is a variable
because of:
 Differences in worker performance
 Variations in hand and body motions
 Mistakes and spoils by worker
 Variations in starting work units
 Extra elements not performed every cycle
 Differences among workers
 The learning curve phenomenon
 Worker Performance
Defined as the pace or relative speed of working
 As worker performance increases, cycle
time decreases
 From the employer’s viewpoint, it is desirable
for worker performance to be high
 What is a reasonable pace to expect from a
worker?
 Normal Performance
A pace of working that can be maintained by a
properly trained average worker throughout an
entire work shift without harmful short-term or
long-term effects on the worker’s health or
physical well-being
 The work shift is usually 8 hours, during which
periodic rest breaks are allowed
 Normal performance = 100% performance
 Common benchmark of normal performance:
 Walking at 3 mi/hr
 Normal Time
 The time to complete a task when working at
normal performance
 Actual time to perform the cycle depends on
worker performance
Tc = Tn / Pw
where Tc = cycle time, Tn = normal time, and Pw
= worker performance or pace
 Example: Normal Performance
 Given: A man walks in the early morning for
health and fitness. His usual route is 1.85 miles.
A typical time is 30 min. The benchmark of
normal performance = 3 mi/hr.
 Determine: (a) how long the route would take at
normal performance and (b) the man’s
performance when he completes the route in 30
min.
 Example: Solution
(a) At 3 mi/hr, time = 1.85 mi / 3 mi/hr
= 0.6167 hr = 37 min
(b) Rearranging equation, Pw = Tn / Tc
Pw = 37 min / 30 min = 1.233 = 123.3 %
 Standard Performance
Same as normal performance, but acknowledges
that periodic rest breaks must be taken by the
worker
 Periodic rest breaks are allowed during the
work shift
 Federal law requires employer to pay the
worker during these breaks
 Other interruptions and delays also occur
during the shift
 PFD Allowance
To account for the delays due to:
 Personal time (P)
 Bathroom breaks, personal phone calls
 Fatigue (F)
 Rest breaks are intended to deal with
fatigue
 Delays (D)
 Interruptions, equipment breakdowns
 Standard Time
Defined as the normal time but with an allowance
added in to account for losses due to personal
time, fatigue, and delays
Tstd = Tn (1 + Apfd)
where Tstd = standard time, Tn = normal time,
and Apfd = PFD allowance factor
 Also called the allowed time
 Irregular Work Elements
 Elements that are performed with a frequency
of less than once per cycle
 Examples:
 Changing a tool
 Exchanging tote pans of parts
 Irregular elements are prorated into the regular
cycle according to their frequency
Standard Hours and Worker Efficiency
 Two common measures of worker productivity
used in industry
Standard hours – represents the amount of work
actually accomplished
Hstd = Q Tstd
Worker efficiency – work accomplished as a
proportion of shift hours
Ew = Hstd / Hsh
Example: Determining Standard Time
 Given: The normal time to perform the regular
work cycle is 3.23 min. In addition, an irregular
work element with a normal time = 1.25 min is
performed every 5 cycles. The PFD allowance
factor is 15%.
 Determine (a) the standard time and (b) the
number of work units produced during an 8-hr
shift if the worker's pace is consistent with
standard performance.
 Example: Solution
(a) Normal time Tn = 3.23 + 1.25/5
= 3.48 min
Standard time Tstd = 3.48 (1 + 0.15)
= 4.00 min
(b) Number of work units produced during an 8-hr
shift
Qstd = 8.0(60)/4.00 = 120 work units
 Worker-Machine Systems
 Worker operating a piece of powered
equipment
 Examples:
 Machinist operating a milling machine
 Construction worker operating a backhoe
 Truck driver driving an 18-wheeler
 Worker crew operating a rolling mill
 Clerical worker entering data into a PC
 Relative Strengths
Humans Machines
Sense unexpected Perform repetitive
stimuli operations consistently
Solve problems Store large amounts of
Cope with abstract information
problems
Retrieve data from
Adapt to change
memory reliably
Generalize from
observations Apply high forces and
Make decisions on power
incomplete data Make routine decisions
quickly
 Types of Powered Equipment
1. Portable power tools
 Portable power drills, chain saws,
electric hedge trimmers
2. Mobile powered equipment
 Transportation equipment, back hoes,
forklift trucks, electric power generator at
construction site
3. Stationary powered machines
 Machine tools, office equipment, cash
registers, heat treatment furnaces
Classification of Powered Machinery
 Numbers of Workers and Machines
One worker and One worker and
One machine Multiple machines
 Taxicab driver and  Machine cluster
taxi

Multiple workers and Multiple workers and

One machine Multiple machines
 Ship's crew  Emergency repair
crew responding
to machine
breakdowns
 Level of Operator Attention
 Full-time attention
 Welders performing arc welding
 Part-time attention during each work cycle
 Worker loading and unloading a
production machine on semi-automatic
cycle
 Periodic attention with regular servicing
 Crane operator in steel mill
 Periodic attention with random servicing
 Firefighters responding to alarms
Two welders
performing arc
welding on
pipe - requires
full-time
attention of
workers (photo
courtesy of
Lincoln
Electric Co.)
 Cycle Time Analysis
 Two categories of worker-machine systems in
terms of cycle time analysis
 Systems in which the machine time depends
on operator control
 Carpenter using power saw to cut lumber
 Cycle time analysis is same as for manual
work cycle
 Systems in which machine time is constant
and independent of operator control
 Operator loading semi-automatic
production machine
 No Overlap: Worker and Machine
 Worker elements and machine elements are
sequential
 While worker is busy, machine is idle
 While machine is busy, worker is idle
 Normal time for cycle
Tn = Tnw + Tm
 Standard time for cycle
Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am)
 Internal Work Elements
 Some worker elements are performed while
machine is working
 Internal work elements performed
simultaneously with machine cycle
 External work elements performed
sequentially with machine cycle
 Desirable to design the work cycle with internal
rather than external work elements
 Automated Work Systems
Automation is the technology by which a process
or procedure is accomplished without human
assistance
 Implemented using a program of instructions
combined with a control system that executes
the instructions
 Power is required to drive the process and
operate the control system
 Levels of Automated Systems
 Semiautomated machine
 Performs a portion of the work cycle under
some form of program control
 Human worker tends the machine for the
rest of the cycle
 Operator must be present every cycle
 Fully automated machine
 Operates for extended periods of time with
no human attention
Automated
robotic spot
welding cell
(photo
courtesy of
Ford Motor
Company)
 Exercise
 Ahmed performs a repetitive work to assemble a
computer. Each computer consists of 25
components. More than one hand tools are used in
the task. The standard time for the work cycle is
7.45 min, based on using a PFD allowance factor
of 15%. If Ahmed completes 75 product units
during an 8-hour shift, determine:
 (A) the number of standard hours accomplished
 (B) worker efficiency.
 (C) If the worker took only one rest break, lasting
13 min, and experienced no other interruptions
during the 8 hours of shift time, determine his
worker performance.
 Solution
 (a) Hstd = 75(7.45)/60 = 558.75/60 = 9.313 hr

 (b) Ew = 9.313/8.0 = 1.164 = 116.4%

 (c) Time worked = 480 – 13 = 467 min

 Tc = (467 min)/(75 pc) = 6.227 min/pc
 Tn = 7.45/(1 + 0.15) = 6.478 min/pc
 Pw = 6.478/6.227 = 1.040 = 104.0%
 Exercise

 The normal time of the work cycle in a worker-

machine system is 5.39 min. The operator-
controlled portion of the cycle is 0.84 min. One
work unit is produced each cycle. The machine
cycle time is constant. (a) Using a PFD
allowance factor of 16% and a machine
allowance factor of 30%, determine the standard
time for the work cycle. (b) If a worker assigned
to this task completes 85 units during an 8-hour
shift, what is the worker’s efficiency?
 Solution

 (a) Machine time per cycle Tm = 5.39 – 0.84 = 4.55

min
Tstd = 0.84(1 + 0.16) + 4.55(1 + 0.30) = 6.889 min
 (b) Hstd = 85(6.889)/60 = 585.6/60 = 9.76 hr
Ew = 9.76/8.0 = 1.22 = 122%