Physical Structures, Network

Types, Protocols, OSI Model

Physical Structures
 Type of Connection
• Two types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-point
– A dedicated link between two devices.
 Type of Connection cont..
Multipoint (Multi drop)
– More than two specific devices share a single link.
 Physical Topology
• Arranging computers in a Network.
• Geometric representation of relationship of all the links
and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
• There are four basic topologies:
• Mesh topology
• Star topology
• Bus topology
• Ring topology
 Mesh topology
• Every link is dedicated point-to-point link
• The term dedicated means that the link carries
traffic only between the two devices it
connects
Mesh topology
• To connect n number of nodes
– Each node must be connected to n – 1 nodes.
– We need n ( n - 1) / 2 duplex-mode links.
• To accommodate that many links, every device must have n – 1
input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to the other n – 1
stations.
• Example:
– 8 devices in mesh.
– Number of links = 8 (8-1)/2 = 28
– Number of ports per device = 8 –1 = 7
 Mesh topology cont..
Advantages:
• Eliminate the traffic problems
- Each connection can carry its own data load.
• It is robust.
- If one link becomes unusable, it does not weaken the entire
system.
• There is privacy or security
- Only the intended recipient sees the message.
- Prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
• Links make fault identification and fault isolation easy
- Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems.
- Network manager discover the exact location of fault and helps in
finding its cause and solution.
Mesh topology cont..

Disadvantage:
• It is related to amount of cabling and number of I/O ports
required.
- Installation and reconnection are difficult.
- Bulk of the wiring (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can be
greater than the available space.
- Hardware (I/O ports and cable) can be expensive.
• For these reasons it is implemented in a limited fashion.
Mesh topology cont..
• Ex: used as a backbone connecting the main computers of a
hybrid network that can include several other topologies.
 Mesh topology cont..
• Ex: Connection of telephone regional offices
– In which each regional office needs to be connected to
every other regional office.
 Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller (hub).
• No direct link between the devices.
• It does not allow direct traffic between devices.
• Controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to
another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data
to the other connected device.
Star Topology cont..
Advantages:
1. It is less expensive than a mesh topology.
2. Each device needs only one link and one I/O port.
3. It is easy to install and reconfigure.
4. Far less cabling needs to be housed.
5. Easy to setup and modify (Additions, moves, and deletions required
one connection between that device and the hub).
6. It is robust
– If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain
active.
7. Easy fault identification and fault isolation.
8. Hub can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective
links.
Star Topology cont..
Disadvantage
• If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
• More cabling is required than ring or bus topologies.
Example:
• Used in LANs
• Often used in High-speed LANs.
• n devices are connected using ‘n’ links.
• 4 devices are connected using ‘4’ links.
 Bus Topology
• Multipoint configuration.
• One long cable acts as a backbone to link all devices in a network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as
it travels farther and farther.
• For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps and on the
distance between those taps.
 Bus Topology cont..
Advantages Disadvantages
It is very simple to install. It is very difficult to troubleshoot.
It uses less cable than other It provides slow data transfer
topologies. speed.
It is relatively inexpensive. A single fault can bring the entire
network down.
Used in small networks. Difficult to add new devices.
Require modification or
replacement of the
backbone.
 Bus Topology cont..
• It is the one of the first topologies used in the design of early
local area networks.
• Traditional Ethernet LANs use this topology.
 Ring Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point configuration to
neighbors.
• Signal is passed from device to device until it reaches
destination.
• Signal is passed in one direction only.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• Repeater regenerates the bits and pass.
Ring Topology cont..
• Advantages
Easy of install and reconfigure
• Each device is linked (either physically or logically) to
only its immediate neighbors.
• To add or delete a device – change only two connections.
Fault isolation is simple.
• A signal is circulating at all times.
• If one device does not receive a signal within a specified
period, it can issue an alarm.
• Alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its
location.
Ring Topology cont..
Disadvantage
• Unidirectional traffic
- A break in the ring can disable the entire network.
• This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch
capable of closing off the break.
– Secondary ring is redundant.
– It is used as a backup in case the
primary ring fails.
 Ring Topology cont..
• Ex: IBM introduced its Token-Ring local area network (LAN)
 Network Types

■ Local Area Networks (LANs)

■ Short distances
■ Designed to provide local interconnectivity
■ Wide Area Networks (WANs)
■ Long distances
■ Provide connectivity over large areas
■ Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
■ Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
 THE INTERNET
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has
affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend our leisure time.
The Internet is a communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

Topics discussed in this section :

Organization of the Internet
Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
 PROTOCOLS
A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of rules that govern
data communications. It determines what is communicated, how it is
communicated and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol
are syntax, semantics and timing

Topics discussed in this section :

▪ Syntax
▪ Semantics
▪ Timing
Elements of a
Protocol
■ Syntax
■ Structure or format of the data
■ Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
■ Semantics
■ Interprets the meaning of the bits
■ Knows which fields define what action
■ Timing
■ When data should be sent and what
■ Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being received.
THE OSI MODEL
Network Models
• Networks - combination of hardware and software that sends data
from one location to another.
• Hardware - physical equipment that carry signal
• Software - Instruction sets
• To make communications efficient,
 Many components are involved.
 Each with a specific function or service.
Layered Tasks
 Hierarchy
 The complex task is broken into smaller subtasks

 Services
 The higher layer uses the services of the lower layer
 Example of Person-to-person communication
• Cognitive : Defines purpose of message exchange

• Linguistic : Provides common language

• Physical : Physically transmits information between

users
Example of Sending a letter
OSI Model
• Open Systems Interconnection model.
• ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications.
• It was first introduced in late 1970s.
• Open System – Set of Protocols that allow any two systems
to communicate.
• 7 layer theoretical model of how a protocol stack should
be implemented
OSI Model
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
• Each layer defines how data is treated and goes
through different stages while traveling in network
from one place to another.
• All layer are used in end to end systems but only first
three layers used in intermediate systems (NODE
TO NODE DELIVERY).
Interaction (Interface Connection) between layers in
the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
Transformation of Data in OSI layers
Transformation of Data in OSI layers
 Organization of the Layers
• Layers 1, 2, and 3 - PHYSICAL, DATA LINK, AND NETWORK.
• These are NETWORK SUPPORT LAYERS.
• They deal with physical aspects of moving data from one device to another such as
• Electrical specifications
• Physical connections
• Physical addressing
• Transport timing
• Reliability
• Layers 5, 6, and 7 - SESSION, PRESENTATION, AND APPLICATION
• It can be thought of as the USER SUPPORT LAYERS.
• Layer 4 - TRANSPORT LAYER
• It links the two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in
a form that the upper layers can use.
 Organization of the Layers
• Upper layers are almost always implemented in software.
• Lower layers are a combination of hardware and software, except for the physical layer,
which is mostly hardware.
Layer 1: Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from
one hop (node) to the next.
• Define physical characteristics of network.
• E.g. wires, connector, voltages, data rates, Asynchronous, Synchronous
Transmission
• Handles bit stream or binary transmission.
• Used to maintain, activate and deactivate physical link.
• For receiver it reassembles bits and send to upper layer for frames.
• For Sender it convert frames
• into bit stream and send on transmission medium.
Physical layer
• Responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
• It is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
• It deals with mechanical and electrical specifications of interfaces and medium.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have
to
perform for transmission to occur.
• Devices working at this layer
1. Hubs
2. Repeaters
3. Cables
4. Modems, etc.,
Other responsibilities of the Physical layer
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
• Defines characteristics of interface between devices and transmission medium.
• Defines type of transmission medium.
• Representation of bits
• Data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation.
• To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals-- electrical or optical.
• Defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1 s are changed to signals).
• Data rate
• Number of bits sent per second.
 Other responsibilities of the Physical layer
• Synchronization of bits
• Sender and receiver must use the same bit rate and also must be synchronized at the
bit level.
• Sender and receiver clocks must be synchronized.
• Line configuration
• Concerned with the connection of devices to the media.
• In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated
link.
• In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
 Other responsibilities of the Physical layer
• Physical topology
• It defines how devices are connected to make a network.
• Devices can be connected by using a
1. Mesh topology
• Every device is connected to every other device
2. Star topology
• Devices are connected through a central device
3. Ring topology
• Each device is connected to the next, forming a ring
4. Bus topology
• Every device is on a common link
5. Hybrid topology
• Combination of two or more topologies
Other responsibilities of the Physical layer
• Transmission mode
• Layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices:
1. Simplex mode
• Only one device can send; the other can only receive.
• It is a one-way communication.
2. Half-duplex mode
• Two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time.
3. Full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode,
• Two devices can send and receive at the same time.
 Data link layer
• It is responsible for moving frames from
one hop (node) to the next.
• Headers and trailers are added.
• Devices working at this layer
1. Switch
2. Bridge
3. NIC
Hop-to-hop delivery/ Node-to-Node delivery
Responsibilities of Data link layer
1. Framing- Stream of bits from network layer is
divided into manageable unit called FRAMES
2. Physical Addressing-Data Link Layer adds a
header to the frame to define physical address
[ address of Sender and Receiver is placed in
the header].
Responsibilities of Data link layer
• Flow control- Speed at which the sender sends and receiver receivers the data
should be balanced.
• Error control
• Mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
• Mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
• Error control is achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
• Access control
• When two or more devices are connected to the same link, layer determines
which device has control over the link at any given time.
 Layer 2 Frames
Frames include information about:
• Which computers are in communication with each other.
• When communication between individual computers begins and when it ends.
• Which errors occurred while the computers communicated (LLC)
• SFD-Start Frame Delimiter FCS-Frme Check Sequence
 Sub layers of Layer 2
1. Logical link layer (LLC)
• Used for communication with upper layers
• Error correction
• Flow control
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
• Access to physical medium
• Header and trailer
 Network layer
• The network layer is responsible source to the
destination delivery of packets across multiple
networks.
• Provide switching and routing facilities.
• Determines network address and best path to
deliver packets.
• Protocols that operates at layer 3:
• IP, ARP,RARP, ICMP,
• Layer 3 Devices:
• Routers,
• ATM switches.
Source-to-destination delivery
Responsibilities of Network layer
1. Logical addressing
• If a packet passes the network boundary we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination systems.
• Layer adds a header to the packet. It includes the logical addresses of the sender and
receiver.
2. Routing
• When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks
(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or
switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination.
 Transport layer
• It is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another (end-to-end).
• Provides QoS
• Whole message is received in order.
• Converts data into segments.
• Ensures data is delivered error free.
• Protocols at layer 4: TCP, ARP,RARP, UDP
• Layer 4 Network component: Gateways
Process-to-Process / End-to-End delivery
Responsibilities of Transport Layer
1. Service point addressing
• Port address is necessary for delivering the packets .
2. Segmentation and reassembly
• Message is divided into transmittable segments each containing a
sequence no. Receiver reassemble the segment in order to get the entire
message.
3. Connection control- Connectionless / connection oriented.
4. Flow control
5. Error control
Session Layer
• Used for dialogue control and synchronization purposes.
• Establishes sessions between systems.
• Dialog control:
• Allows two systems enter into a dialog( either half or full duplex mode).
• Synchronization:
• Add check points (synchronization points) to stream of data.
• If session fails only send that data which was not delivered not whole message.
• E.g. files of 2000MB
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
• Concerned with syntax and semantics of information.

• Responsibilities of Presentation Layer: compression,

and
Translation, encryption.

• Translation: data into bits and selecting appropriate encoding technique

and changing from sender format to receiver format.

• Compression: Reduce number of bits.

Presentation Layer
Application Layer
• Responsible for providing services to the user to access the network.
1. Network Virtual Terminal (Remote desktop)
• Allows user to log on to a remote host.
2. File Transfer, access and management (FTAM)
• Allows user to control files in the remote system.
3. Mail services
• Email forwarding and storage
4. Directory Services
• Provides distributed database sources and access for global information about various
objects and services.
Application Layer
Transformation of Data in OSI layers
Summary of layers
Advantages of OSI
1. Network communication is broken into smaller, more manageable parts.

2. Allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with

each other.

3. All layers are independent and changes does not affect other layers.

4. Easier to understand network communication.

OSI Model