Module 2
Module 2
Module 2
Example
◦ What are the attitudes of rural parents toward the
inclusion of sexuality education in the school
curriculum? (Welshimer & Harris, 1994)
Investigates the degree to which two or more
variables are associated with each other
◦ Does not establish “cause-and-effect”
◦ Only identifies extent of relationship between
variables
Example
◦ Is there an association between self-esteem and
eating behaviors among collegiate female swimmers?
(Fey, 1998)
Seeks to make comparisons between or within
groups of interest
◦ Often associated with experimental research
Is there a difference between the control group and the
experimental group?
◦ Comparison of one group to another on the basis of
existing characteristics
Example
◦ Does participation in Special Olympics affect the
self-esteem of adults with mental retardation?
(Major, 1998)
Personal Exp.
Practical Exp.
RoL
Social Issue
GD
Consultation with the Experts
Interest
◦ Most important
Significance
◦ Theoretical value
◦ Practical value
◦ Timeliness
◦ External review
Manageability
◦ Expertise, time, resources
◦ Free from personal bias
The process of refining the question or idea
into a problem and making it sufficiently
specific so that it is amenable to investigation
This process should lead to the development
Eg:
specific cause (glacial melting)
specific place (Antarctica)
specific group affected (Penguin)
Activity
the weaknesses
In other words, limitations are what the
researcher cannot do (elements outside of their
control) and delimitations are what the
researcher will not do (elements outside of the
boundaries they have set).
Literature review
24
A systematic analysis and interpretation of
available information about a topic of study
25
To know more about a problem
To avoid duplication of information
To learn the gaps in the arena of study
To learn various methods that others
used
To forecast challenges that might be
26
Library (published information)
Electronic search engines (internet)
Gray literature (Unpublished ones)
27
Three steps in writing review of literature
28
This is distortion of available information to
reflect unreal situation
small studies
Using rhetoric rather than reasoning
29
Search widely
Evaluate relevance of an information to your
study
Include information directly relevant to your
study
Mention sources for all bold statements
Write a coherent discussion in your own
words
30
Literature review should be
Adequate
Relevant and
Critical
31
Formulation of research
objectives
32
1. Estimation objectives
◦ Estimates magnitude of an event
2. Association objectives
◦ Analyses factors associated with an event
3. Evaluation objectives
◦ Evaluates associations
33
General objective:
◦ Summarizes what is to be achieved by the study
◦ Should be clearly related to the statement of the
problem
For example, your general objective could be,
"Determine how work environment affects
performance."
34
Specific objectives
◦ Logically connected parts of the general objective
◦ Focus the study on the essentials
◦ Direct the design of investigation
◦ Orient collection, analysis & interpretation of data
36
A research study designed to assess the
accessibility and acceptability of the Voluntary
Counselling and Testing (VCT) Services for HIV
infection in Mumbai had the following general
and specific objectives:
As positive statements
As research questions
As a hypothesis
39
Research objectives should be
Focused, each covering a single point
Ordered in a logical sequence
Realistic and feasible to answer
Operational using action-verbs
Measurable in terms of outcomes at the
end
40
Action-verbs
To determine To compare To verify
To calculate To describe To asses
To explore To test To establish
To identify
Non-action verbs
To appreciate To understand To show
To share To believe to study
41
Objectives transform these questions
into behavioral aims by using action-
oriented words (verbs) such as
'to find out',
'to determine',
'to ascertain' and
'to examine‘,
‘to measure’,
‘to explore’.
Examples:
◦ To describe the infant attachment patterns in
China
◦ To explore the perceptions of people on
Gender based violence in Zambia.
◦ To ascertain the impact of article reviews of
MA students’ ability to consume scientific
literature
◦ To explore the infant attachment patterns
existent in India
◦ To compare these attachment patterns to
other normative samples
◦ To examine gender differences in these
infant attachment patterns
Objectives are simply research questions paraphrased!!!!
Objectives must be SMART
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic / Relevant
Time-bound
44
Specific: Be specific about your desired outcomes. Your objectives
should be clearly written and leave no room for confusion. This can
help you keep them narrow and focused.
most appropriate
Determines the most appropriate technique of
analysis
Contribute to the development of theory.
Types of Research Hypotheses
The formulated hypothesis could be of two types:
1. Descriptive hypothesis
2. Relational hypothesis
For example,
• Higher the likeability of the advertisement, higher is the recall rate.
• Higher the work exhaustion experienced by the BPO professional, higher is the
turnover intention of the person.
Answer: ….......
Answer : (C) He chooses a city where demand isn't
actually high enough.
Answer: ….......
Answer : (a) He doesn't choose a city where
demand is actually high enough.