Computer Systems and

Organisation
Chapter 1
 Introduction to Computer System
• A computer is an electronic device that can be
programmed to accept data (input), process it
and generate result (output). A computer along
with additional hardware and software together is
called a computer system
• A computer system primarily comprises a central
processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output
devices and storage devices.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Electronic circuitry of a computer that carries
out the actual processing and usually referred
as the brain of the computer.
• It is commonly called processor also.
• a CPU can be placed on one or more
microchips called integrated circuits (IC).
 Registers / ALU /CU
• The CPU is given instructions and data through
programs.
• The CPU then fetches the program and data
from the memory
• and performs arithmetic and logic operations
as per the given instructions
• and stores the result back to memory.
 Purpose of Registers
• While processing, the CPU stores the data as
well as instructions in its local memory called
registers.
• Registers are part of the CPU chip and they are
limited in size and number.
• Different registers are used for storing data,
instructions or intermediate results.
 CPU
• Other than the registers, the CPU has two main
components —
-- Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations
that need to be done as per the instruction in a
program.
-- Control Unit (CU).
• CU controls sequential instruction execution, interprets
instructions and guides data flow through the
computer’s memory, ALU and input or output devices.
CPU is also popularly known as microprocessor.
 Hardware and Software
• A computer consists of both hardware and software
and both are equally important for the working of the
computer system.
• The electronic components of a computer system that
we can see and touch are called hardware
• Software is a general term used for computer programs
that control the operations of the computer.
• A program is a sequence of instructions that perform a
particular task.
• A set of programs form a software. Hardware is of no
use without software and software cannot be used
without hardware.
 Types of Software
• Software can be broadly are categorized as:
– System Software
– Application Software
– Utility Software
 System Software
• System software is the software that is directly related
to coordinating computer operations and performs
tasks associated with controlling and utilizing computer
hardware. These programs assist in running application
programs and are designed to control the operation of a
computer system. System software directs the
computer what to do, when to do and how to do.
• System software can be further categorized into
– Operating System
– Language Translator
 Operating System
• An Operating system is the most important system
software. It is a set of programs that control and
supervise the hardware of a computer and also
provide services to application software,
programmers and users.
• It manages all hardware and software, input,
output and processing activities within the
computer system, the flow of information to and
from the processor, sets priorities for handling
different tasks, and so on.
• Without operating system a computer cannot do
anything useful.
• When a computer is switched on, the operating system is
the first program that is loaded onto its memory.
• A user cannot communicate directly with the computer
hardware, so the operating system acts as an interface
between the user and the computer hardware.
• Popular operating systems used in personal computers
are
– DOS
– Windows
– Unix
– Linux
– Solaris, etc.
• An operating system can be a Single User or a
Multiuser operating system.
– A single user operating system allows only one user to
work at any time
– a multiuser operating system allows two or more users
to use a powerful computer at the same time.
– For example Windows 7 is a single user operating
system while Linux is a multiuser operating system.
 Need for an Operating System
• It acts as an interface between the computer and
the user.
• It is designed in such a manner that it operates,
controls and executes various applications on the
computer.
• It also allows the computer to manage its own
resources such as memory, monitor, keyboard,
printer etc.
 Functions of an Operating System
• Processor Management: The operating system takes
care of the allotment of CPU time to different
processes. This is called scheduling
• Device Management: The Operating System
communicates with hardware and the attached devices
and maintains a balance between them and the CPU
• Memory management: In a computer, both the CPU
and the I/O devices interact with the memory. When a
program needs to be executed it is loaded onto the
main memory till the execution is complete
• File Management: The operating System manages the
files, folders and directory systems on a computer.
 Types of Operating System
• Single User and Single Task OS
• Multiuser OS
• Multiprocessing OS
• Time sharing Operating System
• Real Time Operating System
• Distributed Operating System
• Interactive Operating System
 Language Processors
• A program written in any high-level
programming language is called the Source
Program or Source Code.
• The source code cannot be executed directly
by the computer.
• The source code must be converted into
machine language to be executed. The
program translated into machine code is
known as Object Program or Object code.
 Assembler
• The Assembler is used to translate the program
written in Assembly language into machine code.
• The input of Assembler is a source program that
contains assembly language instructions.
• The output generated by assembler is the object
code or machine code understandable by the
computer.
 Compiler
• The language processor that translates the
complete source program as a whole in one go into
machine code is called compiler.
• Some of the examples are C and C++ compilers.
• The program translated into machine code is called
the object program.
 Interpreter
• The language processor that translates a
single statement of source program into
machine code and executes it immediately
before moving on to the next line is called an
Interpreter.
 Utilities
• A utility software is one which provides certain
tasks that help in proper maintenance of the
computer.
• Some of the commonly use utility softwares
are antivirus, Disk defragmenter, backup,
compression etc.
 Antivirus
• An antivirus is utility software which detects
and removes computer viruses.
• If the software is not able to remove the virus,
it is neutralized.
• The antivirus keeps a watch on the functioning
of the computer system. If a virus is found it
may alert the user, flag the infected program
or kill the virus.
 Other Utility software
• Disk Defragmenter
• Backup Utility
• Compression Utility
• Disk Cleaner
• File Management Tools
 Application Software
• An application software is bought by the user to
perform specific applications or tasks, say for example
making a document or making a presentation or
handling inventory or managing the employee
database. An application software can be of two types
– General Purpose Application Software: Word Processor,
Presentation Tools, Spreadsheet Packages, Database
Management System,
– Customized Application software: Inventory Management
System & Purchasing System, School Management System,
Payroll System, Financial Accounting, Hotel Management,
Reservation System, Weather Forecasting system
Input Output Devices
 MEMORY
• Primary Memory
– Primary memory is an essential component of a
computer system. Program and data are loaded
into the primary memory before processing. The
CPU interacts directly with the primary memory to
perform read or write operation. It is of two types
viz. (i) Random Access Memory (RAM) and (ii)
Read Only Memory (ROM).
 RAM and ROM
• RAM and ROM are essential components of a
computer system.
• The CPU interacts directly with the primary
memory to perform read or write operation.
 RAM
• RAM is volatile . ie. As long as the power is supplied
to the computer , it retains the data in it. But as
soon as the power supply is turned off, all the
contents of RAM are wiped out. It is used to store
data temporarily while the computer is working.
Whenever the computer is started or a software
application is launched, the required program and
data are loaded into RAM for processing. RAM is
usually referred to as main memory and it is faster
than secondary storage.
 ROM
• ROM is non- volatile, which means contents
are not lost even when the power is turned
off. It is used as a small but faster permanent
storage. For example: that start up program
(boot loader) that loads operating system into
primary memory, is stored in ROM
 Cache Memory
• RAM is faster than secondary storage, but not as
fast as a computer processor. So, because of RAM,
a CPU may have to slow down. To speed up the
operations of the CPU, a very high speed memory is
placed between the CPU and the primary memory
known as cache.
• It stores the copies of the data from frequently
accessed primary memory locations, thus, reducing
the average time required to access data from
primary memory.
 Secondary Memory
• Primary memory has limited storage capacity
and is either volatile (RAM) or read-only
(ROM). Thus, a computer system needs
auxiliary or secondary memory to
permanently store the data or instructions for
future use.
• The secondary memory is non-volatile and has
larger storage capacity than primary memory.
• It is slower and cheaper than the main memory. But,
it cannot be accessed directly by the CPU.
• Contents of secondary storage need to be first
brought into the main memory for the CPU to access.
• Examples of secondary memory devices include Hard
Disk Drive (HDD), CD/ DVD, Memory Card, etc.,
• there are secondary storage devices like SSD which
support very fast data transfer speed as compared to
earlier HDDs.
Units of memory