6.

ALGORITHMS
Content

 6.1 Concepts: input, output, processing

 6.2 Three basic constructs
 6.3 Algorithm representation
 6.4 Search Algorithms: linear, binary
Objectives

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

 Define an algorithm and relate it to problem solving.

 Define three constructs—sequence, selection, and repetition—and describe their use in algorithms.

 Describe UML diagrams and how they can be used when representing algorithms.

 Describe pseudocode and how it can be used when representing algorithms.

 List basic algorithms and their applications.

 Describe the concept of sorting and understand the mechanisms behind three primitive sorting algorithms.

 Describe the concept of searching and understand the mechanisms behind two common searching algorithms.

 Define subalgorithms and their relations to algorithms.

 Distinguish between iterative and recursive algorithms.

1-CONCEPTS: INPUT, OUTPUT,
PROCESSING
1. Informal definition

 An informal definition of an algorithm is:

Figure 6.1 Informal definition of an algorithm used in a computer

Example

Problem:

 Develop an algorithm for finding the largest integer among a list of positive integers (for example 12, 8,
13, 9, 11). The algorithm should be general and not depend on the number of integers.

Solution :

 Step 1 In this step, the algorithm inspects the first integer (12). The algorithm defines a data item, called
Largest, and sets its value to the first integer (12).

 Step 2 The algorithm makes a comparison between the value of Largest (12) and the value of the second
integer (8). It finds that Largest is larger than the second integer, which means that Largest is still holding
the largest integer.

 Step 3 The largest integer so far is 12, but the new integer (13) is larger than Largest. The value of Largest
should be replaced by the third integer (13). The algorithm changes the value of Largest to 13 and moves
to the next step.

 Step 4 Nothing is changed in this step because Largest is larger than the fourth integer (9).

 Step 5 Again nothing is changed because Largest is larger than the fifth integer (11).
Example (flow)
2. Refinement

This algorithm needs refinement to

be acceptable to the programming
community. There are two
problems.
 First, the action in the first step is
different than those for the other
steps.
 Second, the wording is not the
same in steps 2 to 5.
Redefine the algorithm to remove Figure 6.2 Find largest refined
these two inconveniences by
changing the wording in steps 2 to 5
to ‘If the current integer is greater
than Largest, set Largest to the
current integer’.
3. Generalization

 Is it possible to generalize the algorithm? We want to find the largest of n positive

integers, where n can be 1000, 1 000 000, or more.

Figure 6.3 Generalization of Find Largest

2 - THREE BASIC CONSTRUCTS
Introduction

 Computer scientists have defined three constructs for a structured program or algorithm. The idea is that a
program must be made of a combination of only these three constructs: sequence, decision, and repetition
(Figure 8.6).

 It has been proven there is no need for any other constructs. Using only these constructs makes a program
or an algorithm easy to understand, debug, or change.

Figure 6.4 Three constructs

Sequence

 The first construct is called the sequence.

 An algorithm, and eventually a program, is a

sequence of instructions, which can be a simple
instruction or either of the other two constructs.

Figure 6.5 Sequence construct

Decision

 Some problems cannot be solved with only a

sequence of simple instructions. Sometimes we need
to test a condition.

 If the result of testing is true, we follow a sequence

of instructions:

 if it is false, we follow a different sequence of

instructions.

 This is called the decision (selection) construct.

Figure 6.6 Decision construct

Repetition

 In some problems, the same sequence of instructions

must be repeated. We handle this with the repetition
or loop construct.

 Finding the largest integer among a set of integers

can use a construct of this kind.

Figure 6.7 Repetition construct

3- ALGORITHM REPRESENTATION
1. UML

 Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a pictorial representation of an algorithm. It hides all the details
of an algorithm in an attempt to give the ‘big picture’ and to show how the algorithm flows from
beginning to end.

Figure 6.8 UML for three constructs

2. Pseudocode

 Pseudocode is an English-language-like representation of an algorithm. There is no standard for

pseudocode—some people use a lot of detail, others use less. Some use a code that is close to English,
while others use a syntax like the Pascal programming language

Figure 6.9 Pseudocode for three constructs

3. Example

 Problem Write an algorithm in pseudocode that finds the sum of two integers.

 Solution This is a simple problem that can be solved using only the sequence construct. Note also that we
name the algorithm, define the input to the algorithm and, at the end, we use a return instruction to return
the sum.

Figure 6.10 Pseudocode for Calculating the sum of two

integers
4. BASIC ALGORITHMS
4.1 Summation

 One commonly used algorithm in computer

science is summation. We can add two or three
integers very easily, but how can we add many
integers? The solution is simple: we use the add
operator in a loop

A summation algorithm has three logical parts:

 1. Initialization of the sum at the beginning.

 2. The loop, which in each iteration adds a new

integer to the sum.

 3. Return of the result after exiting from the

loop.

Figure 6.11 UML for Calculating the sum of two integers

2. Smallest and largest

 We discussed the algorithm for finding the largest

among a list of integers at the beginning of this
chapter. The idea was to write a decision construct
to find the larger of two integers.

 If we put this construct in a loop, we can find the

largest of a list of integers.

 Finding the smallest integer among a list of

integers is similar, with two minor differences.

 First, we use a decision construct to find the

smaller of two integers.

 Second, we initialize with a very large integer

instead of a very small one.
Figure 6.12 UML for Finding the smallest data item
3. Sorting

 One of the most common applications in computer science is sorting, which is the
process by which data is arranged according to its values. People are surrounded by
data.
 If the data was not ordered, it would take hours and hours to find a single piece of
information. Imagine the difficulty of finding someone’s telephone number in a
telephone book that is not ordered
Common sorting algorithms
Bubble/Shell sort:
Insertion sort
Selection sort
Quick sort
Merge sort
Selection Sort

 In a selection sort, the list to be sorted is divided

into two sublists—sorted and unsorted— which are
separated by an imaginary wall. We find the smallest
element from the unsorted sublist and swap it with
the element at the beginning of the unsorted sublist.

 After each selection and swap, the imaginary wall

between the two sublists moves one element ahead,
increasing the number of sorted elements and
decreasing the number of unsorted ones.

Figure 7.1 Example of selection sort Figure 6.13 Algorithm of selection sort
Bubble sorts

 In the bubble sort method, the list to be sorted is also divided into two sublists—sorted and unsorted.
The smallest element is bubbled up from the unsorted sublist and moved to the sorted sublist.

 After the smallest element has been moved to the sorted list, the wall moves one element ahead,
increasing the number of sorted elements and decreasing the number of unsorted ones.

 Each time an element moves from the unsorted sublist to the sorted sublist, one sort pass is completed

Figure 6.14 Example of selection sort

5- SEARCH ALGORITHMS: LINEAR,
BINARY
5.1 Searching

 Another common algorithm in computer science is searching, which is the process of finding
the location of a target among a list of objects. In the case of a list, searching means that given
a value, we want to find the location of the first element in the list that contains that value.
There are two basic searches for lists: sequential (linear) search and binary search.
 Sequential search can be used to locate an item in any list,
 whereas binary search requires the list first to be sorted.
5.2 Linear Search

 A linear search or sequential search is a method for finding an element within a list . It sequentially checks
each element of the list until a match is found or the whole list has been searched.

 A linear search runs in at worst linear time and makes at most n comparisons, where n is the length of the
list. If each element is equally likely to be searched, then linear search has an average case
of n+1/2 comparisons, but the average case can be affected if the search probabilities for each element vary.

Figure 6.15 Find ’98’ in list by linear search

Linear Search (Pseudocode)

1. Take the input array arr[] from user.

2. Take element(x) you want to search in this array from user.
3. Set flag variable as -1
4. LOOP : arr[start] -> arr[end]
1. if match found i.e arr[current_postion] == x then
1. Print “Match Found at position” current_position.
2. flag = 0
3. abort

5. After loop check flag variable.

1. if flag == -1
1. print “No Match Found”

6. STOP
5.3 Binary Search

 binary search, also known as half-interval

search, logarithmic search, or binary
chop, is a search algorithm that finds the
position of a target value within a sorted
array.
 Binary search compares the target value to
the middle element of the array.
 If they are not equal, the half in which the
target cannot lie is eliminated and the
search continues on the remaining half,
again taking the middle element to compare
to the target value, and repeating this until
the target value is found.
 If the search ends with the remaining half Figure 6.16 Find ’14’ in list by Binary search
being empty, the target is not in the array.
Binary Search (Pseudocode)

Figure 6.17 Pseudocode for Binary search