SSYA1013 Introduction to Psychology

Dr. SANA ANWAR LASHARI

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Chapter 3
Biological Foundations
of Behavior

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The term nervous system refers to all neural tissue. This system is divided into the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The central nervous system includes the
brain (the part of the nervous system that resides in the skull) and the spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system includes the remainder of the neural tissue in the rest of the body. Afferent nerves
carry signals from the body to the CNS, whereas efferent nerves carry signals from the CNS to the
body.

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 NEURONS
 The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron, a specialized
cell that transmits neural impulses or messages to other
neurons, glands, and muscles.
 The many types of neurons in the nervous system differ
markedly in size and appearance, but they all have certain
common characteristics

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Structure of Neuron
Neurons hold the secrets of how the brain works.

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Dendrites
Projecting from the cell body, or soma, are a number of short branches called
dendrites (from the Greek word dendron, meaning ‘tree’), which receive neural
impulses from other neurons.
Axon
The axon is a slender tube that extends from the soma and transmits these messages
to other neurons.
Terminal Buttons
At its end, the axon divides into a number of tiny branches that end in small swellings
called synaptic terminals or terminal buttons. The terminal buttons do not actually
touch the adjacent neuron.
Synapse
There is a slight gap between the terminal button and the cell body or dendrites of the
receiving neuron. This junction is called a synapse, and the gap itself is called the
synaptic gap
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Neurotransmitter
When a neural impulse travels down the axon and arrives at the terminal buttons, it
triggers the secretion of a neurotransmitter. a chemical that diffuses across the
synaptic gap and stimulates the next neuron, thereby transmitting the impulse from
one neuron to the next. In this way, the post-synaptic (receiving) neuron integrates
information from multiple pre-synaptic neurons.

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Dendrites
 Carry information to the cell body from other neurons
 Cell Body (Soma)
 Contains nucleus that bring information from dendrites to axon
 Axon
 Carries information to the next cell/neuron
 Myelin Sheath
 Insulates the axon and speeds up the neural impulse
 Synapse
 The synapse is the chemical junction between the axon terminals of one neuron and the
dendrites of the next. It is a gap where specialized chemical interactions can occur, rather than
an actual structure.
 Glial Cells
 The myelin sheath is not actually part of the neuron. Myelin is produced by glial cells (or simply glia, or “glue” in
Greek), which are non-neuronal cells that provide support for the nervous system. Glia function to hold neurons
in place (hence their Greek name), supply them with nutrients, provide insulation, and remove pathogens and
dead neurons. In the central nervous system, the glial cells that form the myelin sheath are called
oligodendrocytes; in the peripheral nervous system, they
Psychology: are called Schwann cells.
An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Neurons are classified into three categories, depending on their general function.
Sensory neurons transmit impulses received by receptors to the central nervous
system. The receptors are specialized cells in the sense organs, muscles, skin, and
joints that detect physical or chemical changes and translate these events into
impulses that travel along the sensory neurons.

Motor neurons carry outgoing signals from the central nervous system to muscles
and glands. Interneurons connect sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons.

Interneurons connect sensory (affer-ent) and motor (efferent) neurons. Interneurons

are found only in the central nervous system and in the eyes.

A nerve is a bundle of elongated axons belonging to hundreds or thousands of

neurons. For example, the optic nerve carries the signals from the eye to the brain. A
single nerve may contain axons from both sensory and motor neurons. The cell bodies
of neurons are generally grouped together throughout the nervous system.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
In the brain and spinal cord, a group of cell bodies of neurons is referred to as a
nucleus (plural: nuclei). A group of neuronal cell bodies found outside the brain and
spinal cord is called a ganglion (plural: ganglia). In addition to neurons, the nervous
system has a large number of nonneural cells, called glial cells.
Glial cells outnumber neurons by 9 to 1 and take up more than half the volume
of the brain. The name glia, derived from the Greek word for ‘glue’, suggests one of
their functions – namely, to hold neurons in place. In addition, they provide nutrients
to the neurons and appear to ‘keep house’ in the brain by gathering and packaging up
waste products and taking up dead neurons and foreign substances,
thereby maintaining the signaling capacity of neurons.

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Function of a Neuron
 The specialized structure and organization of neurons allows them to transmit signals in the form of
electric impulses from the brain to the body and back. Individually, neurons can pass a signal all the
way from their own dendrites to their own axon terminals; but at a higher level neurons are organized
in long chains, allowing them to pass signals very quickly from one to the other. One neuron’s axon
will connect chemically to another neuron’s dendrite at the synapse between them. Electrically
charged chemicals flow from the first neuron’s axon to the second neuron’s dendrite, and that signal
will then flow from the second neuron’s dendrite, down its axon, across a synapse, into a third
neuron’s dendrites, and so on.

 This is the basic chain of neural signal transmission, which is how the brain sends signals to the
muscles to make them move, and how sensory organs send signals to the brain. It is important that
these signals can happen quickly, and they do. Think of how fast you drop a hot potato—before you
even realize it is hot. This is because the sense organ (in this case, the skin) sends the signal “This is
hot!” to neurons with very long axons that travel up the spine to the brain. If this didn’t happen quickly,
people would burn themselves.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall