Chapter 2: Data

Communication and
Networking
 Basic elements of communication
• A communication system is a process by which information is
exchanged between two or more parties.
• It involves the transmission, encoding, decoding, and reception of
messages.
• A communication system consists of several basic elements that work
together to enable effective communication.
• These elements are essential for ensuring the accurate and reliable
transfer of information.
Basic elements of communication
 Basic elements of communication
1. Sender (source) which creates the message to be transferred.
2. Medium which carry message.
3. Receiver (sink) which receives the message
 Basic elements of communication
Source: The source is the originator or sender of the information or message. It can
be a person, a computer, a sensor, or any device that generates data or content to be
communicated. The source's purpose is to encode the information into a suitable
format for transmission.
Encoder: The encoder is responsible for converting the message generated by the
source into a format suitable for transmission through the communication channel.
This process involves converting the information into electrical, electromagnetic, or
optical signals, depending on the nature of the communication medium.
Channel: The channel is the medium through which the encoded message is
transmitted from the sender to the receiver. It can be a physical medium like a cable,
fiber optic line, or wireless spectrum, or it can be a combination of multiple media.
 Basic elements of communication
Decoder: The decoder is located at the receiving end of the communication
system. Its role is to convert the transmitted signals back into a format that
can be understood and interpreted by the destination or receiver. Essentially,
the decoder reverses the encoding process performed by the encoder.
Receiver: The receiver is the entity or device that receives the decoded
message from the communication channel. It is responsible for extracting
the meaningful information from the received signals and presenting it in a
comprehensible form to the intended recipient.
Destination: The destination is the final recipient or intended audience of
the communication. It can be a person, a group of people, or another device
that needs to receive and interpret the message.
 Basic elements of communication
Feedback: Feedback is the response or reaction given by the receiver back to the source.
In a successful communication process, feedback allows the sender to ensure that the
intended message was accurately received and understood by the receiver. This feedback
loop helps in improving the effectiveness of future communication attempts.
Noise: Noise refers to any unwanted interference or disturbances that affect the quality
of the message during transmission. Noise can be caused by various factors, such as
electrical interference, physical obstacles, or other signals overlapping with the
communication channel. Reducing noise is crucial for maintaining the integrity and
accuracy of the communication.
Protocols: Protocols are sets of rules and conventions that govern the communication
process. They ensure that both the sender and receiver understand how to encode,
decode, transmit, and interpret the information accurately. Protocols are particularly
important in computer networks and telecommunication systems.
 Modes of communication
Modes of communication refer to the ways in which data or information can be transmitted
between two or more parties in a communication system.
1. Simplex: Data can only flow in one direction, from the sender to the receiver. This
means that communication occurs unidirectionally, and there is no capability for the
receiver to send a response back to the sender. It is analogous to a one-way street, where
traffic flows in only one direction.
• Examples of simplex communication include radio and television broadcasting, where
the transmitter sends signals to multiple receivers (audiences), but the receivers cannot
send any data back to the transmitter. Another example is a doorbell, where a person
pressing the doorbell button triggers a sound (signal) inside the house, but the doorbell
cannot receive any response from inside the house.
• Simplex communication is advantageous in scenarios where feedback from the receiver
is unnecessary or not possible due to technical limitations.
 Modes of communication
2.Half Duplex: Data can flow in both directions, but not simultaneously. This
means that communication can occur bidirectionally, but not at the same time. In
half duplex mode, a sender can transmit data to the receiver, and once the
transmission is complete, the roles are reversed, allowing the receiver to send
data back to the sender.
• A typical example of half duplex communication is a walkie-talkie or a two-way
radio system. When one person is speaking, the other person can only listen, and
vice versa. They cannot talk simultaneously.
• Half duplex communication is useful when real-time feedback or responses are
needed, but the communication devices are designed to handle only one
direction of transmission at a time. It is commonly used in radio communication,
some older Ethernet networks, and certain wireless communication systems.
 Modes of communication
3.Full Duplex: In full duplex communication, data can flow bidirectionally,
simultaneously in both directions. This means that both the sender and the
receiver can transmit and receive data at the same time. It is analogous to a two-
way street, where traffic can flow in both directions simultaneously.
• An excellent example of full duplex communication is a standard telephone
conversation. When two people are talking on the phone, both can speak and
listen simultaneously, allowing for a natural, real-time conversation.
• Full duplex communication is widely used in modern computer networks,
telephony systems, video conferencing, and most high-speed data transmission
systems. It provides the most efficient and seamless form of communication, as
there is no need to wait for one party to finish transmitting before the other can
respond.
Modes of communication
 Computer Network
• A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers,
devices, and communication channels that allow the sharing of
resources, data, and information.
• It enables computers and devices to communicate with each other,
facilitating the exchange of data and services.
• Computer networks can be as small as a local network within a home
or office or as large as a global network connecting millions of devices
across the world, like the internet.
 Advantages of Computer Network
1. Sharing resources: hardware resources such as processor, storage devices, printers,
scanner, etc. can be shared among us using computer network. It helps to minimize the
operational cost of an organization.
2. Faster and cheaper communication: communication in modern days has become
very faster and cheaper to send information to a long distance through network.
3. Centralized control: all network resources such as computers, printer file,
database, etc can be managed and controlled by a central connecting computer also
known as the server.
4. Backup and recovery: server is used to keep data as backup. It maintains backup of
all individual computer information.
5. Remote and mobile access: a remote user can access resources from the distance
using computer network.
 Disadvantages of Computer Network
1. Expensive: In order to install computer network, we require some
extra cost to purchase networking devices such as hubs, switch, cables,
etc.
2. Security problems: network security is the most challenging job for
network administrator in order to protect network resources from
authorized users and physical destructions.
3. Needs technical person: it is very difficult to install and operate
good computer network.
 Types of Computer Network
• On the basis of size computer networks: LAN,MAN,WAN
• LANs are local networks covering a limited area, MANs span larger
cities or metropolitan regions, and WANs connect LANs and MANs
over vast geographical distances, potentially worldwide. Each type of
network serves different purposes and provides varying levels of
speed, capacity, and scalability to meet the communication needs of
different settings and organizations.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that spans a limited geographical
area, typically within a building, office, campus, or a small group of
buildings in close proximity to each other. LANs are designed for high-speed
and efficient communication between devices within the local area. They are
commonly used in homes, schools, universities, offices, and small
businesses. LANs often rely on wired connections such as Ethernet cables or
wireless connections like Wi-Fi.
• Real-Life Example: A classic example of a LAN is a small office network. In
this scenario, several computers, printers, and other devices within an office
building are connected to a central switch or router. Employees can share
files, printers, and other resources within the LAN, allowing for seamless
collaboration and data exchange.
LAN
Advantages of LAN
1. It is cheaper to establish.
2. Data transmission is faster than MAN and WAN.
3. It has higher security to resources of the network
• 4. It is eager to establish, manage es of the network and operate

Disadvantages of LAN
1. It is limited only to a small area.
2. It can connect less number of computers comparatively.
3. Cannot be used as distributed network.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers a larger geographical
area than a LAN, such as a city or metropolitan region. It interconnects
multiple LANs within that area and provides higher data transmission
rates over longer distances compared to a LAN. MANs are often
owned and operated by service providers or government entities.
• Real-Life Example: A municipal Wi-Fi network can serve as an
example of a MAN. Some cities or towns set up wireless networks that
cover a significant portion of the urban area, providing residents and
visitors with internet access in public spaces like parks, streets, and
public buildings.
MAN
Advantages of MAN
1. It covers larger geographical area than LAN.
2. It can connect large number of computer than LAN.
3. We can use guided as well as unguided type of transmission media.

Disadvantages of MAN
1. It is expensive to set up then LAN.
2. Transmission speed slower compared to LAN.
3. It is complex to establish, manage and provides security.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• A Wide Area Network (WAN) spans a vast geographical area, connecting
LANs and MANs across cities, countries, or even continents. WANs use
long-distance communication channels, such as leased lines, satellite links,
and fiber-optic cables, to transmit data between distant locations. The
internet is the most extensive and well-known example of a global WAN.
• Real-Life Example: The internet itself is the most prominent real-life
example of a WAN. It connects millions of computers and networks
worldwide, allowing users to access websites, exchange emails, share files,
and communicate with people from all corners of the globe. When you
access a website hosted on a server located in a different country, you are
using the WAN infrastructure to retrieve the data from that remote server.
WAN
Advantage of WAN
1. It covers larger geographical area than LAN and MAN.
2. It can connect large number of computer compared to LAN and
MAN.
3. Using WAN communication can be done over a large distance.

Disadvantage of WAN
1. It is expensive to establish, manage and operate.
2. It is the slowest type of network compared to that of LAN and MAN.
3. Highly qualified manpower are required to establish and run these
type of network.
 Types of Computer Network
• On the basis of Network architecture: P2P, Client-Server
• Network architecture refers to the various services provided by the
network and it also deals with how data is transmitted from one
computer to others.
Client server network
 Client server network
• An arrangement of computers to resource sharing and communicate each
other through a central device (server) to all workstations (clients) is called
client server architecture one or more computers in the network act as server
which provides services to other computers which are called clients.
• The server is a high capacity high speed computer with a large memory.
• Server contains the network operating system.
• The central server manages, organize, and coordinate all network clients on
the network.
• The most common service is provided by different servers are file services,
print services, Message services and database services.
Advantages
1. Centralized administration is possible through this network.
2. High security can be provided by suing appropriate server.
3. It is appropriate for large organization.
4. Data recovery and backup process is easier.

Disadvantages
1. If server fails whole network is affected.
2. It is expensive due to use of dedicated server.
3. It is complex to establish and manage.
4. Experienced administrator is required to operate.
Peer-peer network
 Peer-peer network
• In peer-to-peer architecture computers are connected individually in
pair (one-to-one connection). A peer-to-peer network is the type of
network in which all computers in the network act both a client and a
server i.e. all computers can both request and provide services.
• Each workstations act as both a client and a server.
• There is no central repository for information and no central server to
maintain.
• A peer to peer network is also known as a distributed network.
• Each node shares its sources with other nodes in the network.
Advantages
1. It is simple cheap and easier to set up.
2. Since there is no dedicated server, user can manage their own server.
3. Failure of a computer in a network doesn't effect the other computer
in a network.

Disadvantages
1. Data security is very poor in this type of architecture.
2. Data recovery and backup is difficult.
3. It is not appropriate for large scale organization.
4. Network administration is difficult it without dedicated Server.
 Transmission media
• A transmission media is defined as the means of communication
between two networking devices that helps to transfer data from
sender to receiver and vice versa.
• Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.
1) Bound (guided) media
2) Unbound ( unguided) media
 Wired or Guided Media or Bound
Transmission Media
• The transmission of data and information from source to destination
by using physical medium like wires are called bounded transmission
media. Its types are as follows.
1) Twisted pair cable
i) Shielded Twisted pair cable (STP)
ii) Unshielded Twisted pair cable (UTP)
2) Coaxial Cable
3) Fiber optics
Twisted pair cable
 Twisted pair cable
• A pair of copper wires is twisted to each other in a helical path making
the same structure as a DNA molecule.
• The reason for twisting is to reduce electrical interference.
• It is the cheapest and easily available wire.
• It is mostly used in telephone systems.
 Twisted pair cable
Advantages
1. It is cheaper than other cables.
2. It is light and thin. So, it is flexible for LAN.
3. It can travel data in short distance with higher bandwidth.

Disadvantage
1. It is only used for short distance transmission.
2. It can be affected by electrical and magnetic field.
3. It is slower type of transmission media compared to other cables.
Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial Cable
• A coaxial cable consists of a thick copper wire in the core, surrounded
by an insulating plastic with a net of thin copper wires used as
earthling and in the outermost part.
• Example TV cabling system.
• It has higher degree of noise immunity and High bandwidth but are
expensive.
 Coaxial Cable
Advantages:
1. It is faster and reliable than twisted pair cable.
2. It can transfer data over medium range of distance.
Disadvantages
1. It is not appropriate for relatively larger distance.
2. It is expensive than twisted pair cable.
3. It is rarely used in computer network.
Fiber Optics
 Fiber Optics
• Fiber optics, also known as optical fibers, is a technology that uses thin
strands of glass or plastic to transmit information in the form of light
pulses.
• These optical fibers can carry large amounts of data over long distances
at extremely high speeds, making them a crucial component of modern
telecommunications, internet, and data transmission systems.
• It is the most advanced media in communication, which uses light
rather than electricity to transmit information.
• Optical fiber is very thin media, which is measured in microns and is
very hard to identify with our naked eye.
 Fiber Optics
Advantages:
1. It has higher bandwidth that means it can handle large volume of data.
2. This medium can be used for long distance transmission.
3. It is the most secured and error free and faster transmission medium.
Disadvantages:
1. It is one of the expensive type of transmission media.
2. It is not used for short distance transmission.
3. Highly qualified and technical manpower are required to operate on
fiber optics.
 Applications of Fiber optics
• Telecommunications: Used in long-distance communication networks,
internet backbones, and high-speed broadband connections.
• Data centers: Utilized for high-speed data transmission within data
centers and between them.
• Cable television: Fiber optics have enabled high-definition video and
high-bandwidth content delivery in cable TV networks.
• Medical field: Used in endoscopy and other medical imaging
applications.
• Military and aerospace: Applied in secure communications and sensor
systems.
 Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound
Transmission Media
• Unbound transmission is also called wireless or unguided media.
• If there is no physical connectors (wires) between the two
communicating device is called wireless transmission media.
• Its types are as follows.
1. Radio Wave
2. Microwave
3. Infrared
4. Satellite Communication
 Radio wave
• Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with long
wavelengths ranging from about 1 millimeter to hundreds of meters.
• They are used for various communication applications, including radio
broadcasting, television transmission, mobile phones, and wireless
networks (Wi-Fi and Bluetooth).
• Radio waves can travel long distances and can penetrate obstacles,
making them suitable for long-range communication.
• Radio waves can operate on single or multiple frequency bands.
• In this case, the signals are carried over carrier waves which have
frequencies in the range of radio frequency spectrum.
 Microwave
• Microwaves are a type of electromagnetic wave with wavelengths ranging from
about 1 millimeter to 1 meter.
• They are used in various applications, such as microwave ovens for cooking,
radar systems for navigation and weather monitoring, and wireless
communication systems (e.g., microwave links for point-to-point
communication and microwave bands for cellular networks).
• Microwave communication is commonly used for point-to-point data
transmission between sites, where line-of-sight between the transmitting and
receiving antennas is necessary.
• Unlike radio waves, microwaves have higher energy and can cause heating
effects when absorbed by certain materials, which is how microwave ovens
cook food.
 Infrared
• Infrared radiation has wavelengths ranging from about 0.7 micrometers
to 1 millimeter.
• Infrared is commonly associated with heat radiation and is used in
various applications such as remote controls for TVs and other electronic
devices, infrared thermometers, night vision technology, and infrared
communication.
• Infrared communication is used in consumer electronics to transmit data
between devices without the need for physical connections, like in
infrared data ports on older mobile phones.
• Infrared communication is limited in range and requires line-of-sight
between the transmitter and receiver.
 Satellite Communication
• Satellite communication involves the use of artificial satellites placed in orbit
around the Earth to relay signals between ground stations.
• These satellites act as relay stations in the sky, receiving signals from one
location on Earth and retransmitting them to another location, enabling global
communication coverage.
• Satellite communication is used for various purposes, including television
broadcasting, internet services (like satellite broadband), long-distance telephone
communication, and data transmission for remote areas.
• There are different types of satellites, including geostationary satellites (orbiting
at a fixed position above the Earth) and low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites (orbiting
closer to the Earth's surface). Each type has its advantages and is used for
specific applications.
Satellite Communication
 Satellite
Property Radio Wave Microwave Infrared Communication

Hundreds of N/A (uses

Wavelength Range meters 1 mm to 1 meter 0.7 µm to 1 mm radio/microwaves)
Television
Radio broadcasting, internet
broadcasting, Remote controls, services, long-distance
mobile phones, Point-to-point links, radar infrared thermometers, telephony, data
Communication wireless networks systems, cellular networks, night vision, infrared transmission for
Uses (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) satellite communication technology remote areas

Good penetration Moderate penetration through Limited penetration

Penetration through obstacles obstacles through obstacles N/A

Communication Long-distance Medium to long-distance Short-range

Range communication communication communication Global coverage
Line-of-Sight
Required No Yes Yes Yes
Television
Radio broadcasting, internet
broadcasting, Remote controls, services, long-distance
television, mobile Microwave ovens, radar infrared thermometers, telephony, data
phones, wireless systems, wireless networks, night vision, infrared transmission for
Applications networks cellular networks communication remote areas
 Network Topology / LAN Topology
• The physical layout or a geographical orientation of the computer in a
network is known as a network topology. There are many different
way for setting up LAN.
• Therefore, topology is a physical arrangement in which computers or
devices in a network are interconnected with each other.
• People may choose different topologies due to different requirement of
the user.
• This requirements may be high speed of data transfer, data security,
cost etc.
• Types of Network Topology: Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh, Tree, Hybrid.
 Bus Topology
• In this type of topology every computers or devices in a network are
directly connected to a single cable called back-bone or trunk in a
linear way.
• The position of the server is not fixed in this type of topology.
• The signal pass through the bus in both direction and can be received
by all other nodes.3
• All the nodes, In this type of topology has equal access to the bus and
there is no discrimination.
Advantages:
• It is simple and easy to setup and extend the network.
• It requires less cable.
• If any computer in the network downs, then it does not affect the
whole network.
• We can easily connect and disconnect any number of computers in the
bus.
Disadvantages:
• Data traffic is very high in bus.
• If there is problem in main cable then entire network goes down.
• It is very difficult to find out the fault in the bus.
Star Topology
 Star Topology
• Computers in the network are connected to each other with the help of
central connecting device hub or switch or server.
• It is based on client server architecture.
• It is the most popular and widely used topology for LAN.
Advantages
• It is simple, reliable and easy to set up and re-configuration.
• It is flexible to connect new computer and remove existing computer in the
network.
• It is very easy to find out fault.
• If any computer in the network goes down, then other computers can continue
their functions.

Disadvantages
• It requires very large amount of cables.
• It is expensive topology.
• If there is any problem in central device hub or switch then the entire network will
be down.
• The data traffic is high in central device hub.
 Ring Topology
• Computers are interconnected to each other by making a closed
circular structure that means each computer is connected to other two
adjacent computer in either network architecture.
Advantages
• It simple and inexpensive topology.
• There is less chance of data collision because of unidirectional data
transmission.
• There is no server so each computer has equal access facilities to the resources.
• Its performance is better than bus topology for small size network.

Disadvantages
• It is not flexible topology so it is difficult for adding and removing new nodes.
• It is not suitable for large size network.
• If there is problem in any computer or connection then the entire network goes
down.
• It is very difficult to find out the errors in the network.
 Mesh Topology
• Every computer in the network has point to point connection to all
other computers by using multiport connector.
• It is also based on peer to peer architecture.
Advantages
• It is fastest and most reliable topology.
• Failure in any computer or transmission media does not affect the rest of
the network.
• There is less amount of data traffic due to multiple paths.

Disadvantages
• It is very much complex and most expensive topology.
• It is difficult to find an error in the network.
• It is difficult to add and remove nodes in the network so it is not flexible.
• It requires maximum amount of cables and multiport connectors.
 Tree Topology
• Tree topology is the extension of bus or star topology.
• Data can flow from top to bottom and vice versa.
Advantages
• It is easy to manage network as per our needs.
• It is very flexible so we can add and remove any number of nodes.
• It is easier to find the fault nodes or hubs in the network.

Disadvantages
• The failure of root node will cause the failure of entire network.
• It is expensive because it needs large number of cable and network
device.
• The data traffic is high at root nodes.
 Hybrid topology
• If two or more topologies are combined together then it is called
hybrid topology.
• So it is very difficult to design and to implement the hybrid topology.
• It is expensive too.
OSI (Open System Interconnection) reference
model
• It is a conceptual model developed by the international organization
for standardization (ISO) which enables diverse communication
systems to communicate using standard protocols.
• The OSI Model can be seen as a universal language for computer
networking. It is based on the concept of splitting up a communication
system into seven abstract layers, each one stacked upon the last.
• The model is called ISO OSI reference model, because it deals with
connecting open system i.e. the system that are open for
communication with other system.
7. Application layer: Data generated by and usable by software applications. The
main protocol used at this layer is HTTP.
6. Presentation layer: Data is translated into a form the application can accept. Some
authorities consider HTTPS encryption and decryption to take place at this layer.
5. Session layer: Controls connections between computers (this can also be handled
at layer 4 by the TCP protocol).
4. Transport layer: Provides the means for transmitting data between the two
connected parties, as well as controlling the quality of service. The main protocols
used here are TCP and UDP.
3. Network layer: Handles the routing and sending of data between different
networks. The most important protocols at this layer are IP and ICMP.
2. Data link layer: Handles communications between devices on the same network. If
layer 3 is like the address on a piece of mail, then layer 2 is like indicating the office
number or apartment number at that address. Ethernet is the protocol most used here.
1. Physical layer: Packets are converted into electrical, radio, or optical pulses and
transmitted as bits (the smallest possible units of information) over wires, radio
waves, or cables.
 The physical layer
• This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the data
transfer, such as the cables and switches.
• This is also the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream,
which is a string of 1s and 0s.
• The physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal
convention so that the 1s can be distinguished from the 0s on both
devices.
 What is a network switch?
• A network switch connects devices within a network (often a
local area network, or LAN) and forwards data packets to and from
those devices. Unlike a router, a switch only sends data to the single
device it is intended for (which may be another switch, a router, or a
user's computer), not to networks of multiple devices.
 The data link layer
• The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the data link
layer facilitates data transfer between two devices on the same network.
• The data-link layer encapsulates packets from the network layer into frames.
Then, on the hardware, it delivers each frame bit by bit. The data connection
layer at the receiver’s end collects signals from hardware and assembles
them into frames.
• The data link layer takes packets from the network layer and breaks them
into smaller pieces called frames.
• Data link layer is also responsible for flow control and error control in intra-
network communication (The transport layer only does flow control and
error control for inter-network communications).
 The network layer
• The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between two
different networks. If the two devices communicating are on the same
network, then the network layer is unnecessary.
• The network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into
smaller units, called packets, on the sender’s device, and reassembling
these packets on the receiving device.
• The network layer also finds the best physical path for the data to reach
its destination; this is known as routing.
• Network layer protocols include IP, the
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), the
Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP), and the IPsec suite.
 The network layer
• The Internet Protocol (IP) is one of the main protocols used at this
layer, along with several other protocols for routing, testing, and
encryption.
• Suppose Bob and Alice are connected to the same local area network
(LAN), and Bob wants to send Alice a message. Because Bob is on the
same network as Alice, he could send it directly to her computer
across the network. However, if Alice is instead on a different LAN
several miles away, Bob's message will have to be addressed and sent
to Alice's network before it can reach her computer, which is a
network layer process.
 What is Packet?
• In networking, a packet is a small segment of a larger message. Data
sent over computer networks, such as the Internet, is divided into
packets. These packets are then recombined by the computer or device
that receives them.
• This is similar to how packets work on the Internet. Suppose a user
needs to load an image. The image file does not go from a web server
to the user's computer in one piece. Instead, it is broken down into
packets of data, sent over the wires, cables, and radio waves of the
Internet, and then reassembled by the user's computer into the original
photo.
 The transport layer
• Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end communication between the two devices. This
includes taking data from the session layer and breaking it up into chunks called
segments before sending it to layer 3. The transport layer on the receiving device is
responsible for reassembling the segments into data the session layer can consume.
• The transport layer is also responsible for flow control and error control.
• Flow control determines an optimal speed of transmission to ensure that a sender
with a fast connection does not overwhelm a receiver with a slow connection. The
transport layer performs error control on the receiving end by ensuring that the data
received is complete, and requesting a retransmission if it isn’t.
• Transport layer protocols include the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the
User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 The session layer
• This is the layer responsible for opening and closing communication between
the two devices. The time between when the communication is opened and
closed is known as the session. The session layer ensures that the session stays
open long enough to transfer all the data being exchanged, and then promptly
closes the session in order to avoid wasting resources.
• The session layer also synchronizes data transfer with checkpoints.
• For example: if a 100 megabyte file is being transferred, the session layer could
set a checkpoint every 5 megabytes. In the case of a disconnect or a crash after
52 megabytes have been transferred, the session could be resumed from the last
checkpoint, meaning only 50 more megabytes of data need to be transferred.
Without the checkpoints, the entire transfer would have to begin again from
scratch.
 The presentation layer
• This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be
used by the application layer; in other words, layer 6 makes the data
presentable for applications to consume. The presentation layer is
responsible for translation, encryption, and compression of data.
• Two communicating devices communicating may be using different
encoding methods, so layer 6 is responsible for translating incoming
data into a syntax that the application layer of the receiving device can
understand.
 The presentation layer
• If the devices are communicating over an encrypted connection, layer
6 is responsible for adding the encryption on the sender’s end as well
as decoding the encryption on the receiver's end so that it can present
the application layer with unencrypted, readable data.
• Finally the presentation layer is also responsible for compressing data
it receives from the application layer before delivering it to layer 5.
This helps improve the speed and efficiency of communication by
minimizing the amount of data that will be transferred.
 The application layer
• This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user.
Software applications like web browsers and email clients rely on the
application layer to initiate communications. But it should be made
clear that client software applications are not part of the application
layer; rather the application layer is responsible for the protocols and
data manipulation that the software relies on to present meaningful
data to the user.
• Application layer protocols include HTTP as well as SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol is one of the protocols that enables email
communications).
 Network Connecting devices
• The devices of computer network which are used to connect network
is called the network connecting devices. We can connect two or more
networks together to create larger network. A LANs can be connected
others LANs, MANs or WAN.
Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
• A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component, typically a circuit
board or chip, which is installed on a computer so it can connect to a network.
• The NIC contains the electronic circuitry needed to ensure the reliable
communications between workstations and servers.
• The network card operates as a middleman between a computer and a data
network. For example, when a user requests a webpage, the computer will
pass the request to the network card, which converts it into electrical impulses.
• The card itself uses a bus-specific edge connector to plug into the computer
motherboard.
• On the exposed side of the NIC, there are cabling ports that plug directly into
the LAN cabling.
Repeaters
 Repeaters
• As the name implies, repeaters repeat network data.
• In general, repeaters operate at the electronic level and contain no real
intelligence.
• A repeater accepts weak signals, electrically regenerates them and then
sends the messages on their way.
• There are two types of repeaters: amplifiers (raise amplitude) and
signal-regenerating repeaters.
• Amplitude: the maximum displacement or distance moved by a point
on a vibrating body or wave measured from its equilibrium position.
 Why are Repeaters needed?
• When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets
attenuated depending upon the nature of the channel or the technology.
This poses a limitation upon the length of the LAN or coverage area of
cellular networks. This problem is alleviated by installing repeaters at
certain intervals.
• Repeaters amplifies the attenuated signal and then retransmits it.
Digital repeaters can even reconstruct signals distorted by
transmission loss. So, repeaters are popularly incorporated to connect
between two LANs thus forming a large single LAN.
Hubs
 Hubs
• A hub is simply a multi-port repeater.
• A network hub is a node that broadcasts data to every computer or
Ethernet-based device connected to it.
• A hub is less sophisticated than a switch, the latter of which can isolate
data transmissions to specific devices.
• With limited capabilities and poor scalability, network hubs had
primarily one competitive advantage over switches: lower prices.
• They connect multiple computers together, transmitting data received
at one port to all of its other ports without restriction. Hubs operate in
half-duplex.
Switch
 Switch
• Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link
layer of the OSI model.
• They connect devices in a network and use packet switching to send,
receive or forward data packets or data frames over the network.
• A switch has many ports, to which computers are plugged in.
• When a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines
the destination address, performs necessary checks and sends the
frame to the corresponding device(s).
• It supports unicast, multicast as well as broadcast communications.
Modem
 Modem
• A modem in computer networks is an electronic device designed to
facilitate the conversion of digital signals into analog signals and vice
versa.
• Its primary purpose is to transmit data through various communication
channels, including telephone lines, cable lines, or wireless networks.
• The modem possesses the ability to encode digital signals into an
analog format for transmission over the communication channel.
• Upon reaching the receiving modem, the analog signal is decoded
back into digital signals, which can be understood and processed by
computers or other digital devices.
Modem
 Modem
• A modem works by converting digital signals into analog signals and
vice versa.
• The modem consists of two main components: the modulator and the
demodulator.
• The modulator is responsible for converting digital signals into analog
signals, while the demodulator is responsible for converting analog
signals into digital signals.
Bridge
 Bridge
• Bridge in computer network is a smart device that is used for creating
one bigger network by connecting smaller subnetworks.
• It can work as repeater for extending the network.
• The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming
traffic and determine whether to filter or forward it.
• Basically, a bridge in computer networks is used to divide network
connections into sections, now each section has separate bandwidth
and a separate collision domain.
• Here bridge is used to improve network performance.
Router
 Router
• The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is
designed to receive, analyze, and forward data packets between
computer networks.
• A router examines a destination IP address of a given data packet, and
it uses the headers and forwarding tables to decide the best way to
transfer the packets.
• There are some popular companies that develop routers; such
are Cisco, 3Com, HP, Juniper, D-Link, Nortel, etc. Some important
points of routers are given below:
 Router
• Some important points of routers are given below:
• A router is used in LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area
Network) environments. For example, it is used in offices for
connectivity, and you can also establish the connection between
distant networks such as from Bhopal to
• It shares information with other routers in networking.
• It uses the routing protocol to transfer the data across a network.
• Furthermore, it is more expensive than other networking devices like
switches and hubs.
Gateways
 Gateways
• A gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two
networks operating with different transmission protocols.
• The most common type of gateways, the network gateway operates at
layer 3, i.e. network layer of the OSI (open systems interconnection)
model.
• However, depending upon the functionality, a gateway can operate at
any of the seven layers of OSI model.
• It acts as the entry – exit point for a network since all traffic that flows
across the networks should pass through the gateway. Only the internal
traffic between the nodes of a LAN does not pass through the gateway.
 Gateways
• Gateways are just like routers but much more complex and powerful than
routers.
• They are slower than router and expensive.
• Gateways make communication possible between different architecture and
environments.
• Gateways having higher layer functionalities and works on multiple layer
protocols.
• Network Gateway − This is the most common type of gateway that
provides as interface between two dissimilar networks operating with
different protocols. Whenever the term gateway is mentioned without
specifying the type, it indicates a network gateway.
Wi-Fi
 Wi-Fi
• The term Wi-Fi suggests Wireless Fidelity.
• Wi-Fi is a wireless technology used to connect computers, tablets,
smartphones and other devices to the internet.
• It has limited range.
• Wi-Fi is used in many personal computers, video game consoles, MP3
players, smart phones, printers, digital camera, laptops computers and
other devices.
• Wi-Fi is used to create wireless LAN to connect computer system.
 How does Wi-Fi work?
• Wi-Fi uses radio waves to transmit data from your wireless router to
your Wi-Fi enabled devices like your TV, smartphone, tablet and
computer.
• Because they communicate with each other over airwaves, your
devices and personal information can become vulnerable to hackers,
cyber-attacks and other threats.
Bluetooth
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving
data using radio waves.
• It can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it
should be within the estimated communication range to connect.
• When two devices start to share data, they form a network called piconet
which can further accommodate more than five devices.
• Bluetooth is Wireless.
• Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications standard.
• Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 Some basic terms
Internet
• The Internet is an interconnected network of thousands of networks and millions of
computers linking business, education institutions, government agencies, and individuals
together.
Used / application of internet
1. Search information
2. E-mail service
3. Communication
4. File Transfer
5. Remote login
6. Publishing of articles, reports, and newsletter.
7. Online education
8. Online shopping.
9. Entertainment.
 IP Address
• IP address stands for internet protocol address; it is an identifying number
that is associated with a specific computer or computer network.
• When connected to the internet, the IP address allows the computers to
send and receive information.
• The typical IP address looks like 216.27.67.137 IP address are expressed
in decimal as above which is easier for us to remember, but computers
communicate in binary.
• So same IP address looks like 11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001
IP address has four sets of number separated by a period ( . ), These sets
are Called Octets.
 IP Address
• IP address perform mainly two functions: one is identification of Network
and Identification of particular host in that network.
• IP addresses are generated automatically using an integrated algorithm by
the Internet of Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
• IANA then allocates IP address blocks to regional internet registries
(RIRs) who in turn geographically distribute these blocks to
internet service providers (ISPs).
• To generate individual IP addresses for their customers, ISPs typically
use a technique called Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
DHCP allows devices to have an IP address assigned automatically when
they connect to a network.
 MAC address
• Media Access Control (MAC) address also known as hardware or physical
address is unique number associated with a network adapter (NIC).
• It is used to uniquely identify each device (node) of a network.
• To make communication between two networked devices, we need two
addresses: IP address and MAC address.
• MAC address is usually assigned by the manufacturer of a network
interface card (NIC) and are stored in its ROM.
• It is globally unique; it means two devices cannot have the same MAC
address. It is represented in a hexadecimal format on each device, such
as 00:0a:95:9d:67:16.
 MAC address
• It works on the data link layer of the OSI model.
• We have the IP address to identify the device through different networks,
we still need a MAC address to find the devices on the same network.
• For example: 00:A0:C9:14:C8:29 The prefix 00A0C9 indicates
manufactures Intel Corporation and 14C829 indicates a particular host.
• The first half of the address contains ID number of the adapter regulated
by an Internet standards body and other half represent the number
assigned by the manufacturer.
• If a LAN network has two or more devices with the same MAC address,
that network will not work.
 Intranet
• An intranet is a private network that uses internet protocols, to
securely share part of an organization's information between its
employees.
• An intranet is a Local Area Network or Wide Area Network that uses
TCP/IP protocol but, belongs to a corporation, school, or organization.
• The intranet is accessible only to the organization's workers.
• If the intranet is connected the Internet, then it is secured by a firewall
to prevent unauthorized users from gaining access to it.
 Advantages of an Intranet
• Workforce productivity: Employees can easily access and share
information in-between their workgroups which enhances productivity
• Time: With intranets, organizations can make more information
available to employees in any time.
• Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for
communication within an organization.
 Extranet
• An extranet is a private intranet that can be accessed by outside users
over the secure channel.
• To gain entrance to the extranet's resource, an external user must log
on to the networks by providing a valid user ID and password.
• The extranet is a combination of the public Internet and the closed
intranet.
Extranet
Intranet vs Extranet
 Sub Net Mask
• The subnet mask number helps to define the relationship between the
host (computers, routers switches, etc.) and the rest of the network.
• As the name indicates, the subnet mask is used to subdivide a network
into smaller, more manageable chunks.
 Network Tool
Network tools are used for supporting easier and effective network
connections. Some of the network tools are:
Packet tracer: Packet Tracer is an innovative and powerful network
simulator that can be used for a practice build own network with routers,
switches, wireless, and much more.
• It allows to experiment with network behavior, build models and to ask
"what if" questions.
• It is used to trace the movement of data packets in data communication.
Packet Tracer provides simulation, visualization, authoring, assessment,
and collaboration capabilities to facilitate the teaching and learning of
complex technology concepts.
Packet Tracer
 Network Tool
Remote login: Remote login allows a user terminal to connect to a host
computer via a network or direct telecommunications link, and to
interact with that host computer as if the user terminal were directly
connected to that host computer.
• Remote Login is a process in which user can login into a remote site
i.e. computer, and use services that are available on the remote
computer.
• With the help of remote login a user can understand result of
transferring result of processing from the remote computer to the local
computer.
Remote Login
 Transmission impairments terminology
Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the time between consecutive signal elements,
typically caused by network congestion or variations in transmission delays.
• It can lead to data packets arriving out of order, affecting the overall quality of
communication.
Example: In video conferencing, jitter might cause delays between audio and video
streams, leading to a disjointed experience where lips don't sync with spoken words.
Singing: Singing, also known as "ringing," is an unwanted oscillation or overshoot of
a signal's amplitude during transmission.
• It can occur due to impedance mismatches or other reflections in the transmission
line.
Example: An analog telephone line might exhibit singing if there are impedance
mismatches along the line, resulting in echoes or distorted voice.
 Transmission impairments terminology
Echo: Echo is the reflection of a transmitted signal back to the sender, causing a
delayed and distorted version of the original signal.
• It can result from impedance mismatches or poor hybrid circuitry in
communication systems.
Example: During a phone call, if you hear your own voice with a delay after
speaking, that's an example of echo.
Crosstalk: Crosstalk refers to the unwanted coupling of signals between adjacent
communication channels or transmission paths.
• It can happen due to electromagnetic interference or poor isolation between
channels.
Example: In a network cable with multiple twisted pairs, crosstalk may cause signals
from one pair to interfere with signals on another pair, leading to data corruption.
 Transmission impairments terminology
Distortion: Distortion is any alteration of the original signal's waveform,
which can be caused by various factors such as interference, non-linearities in
transmission equipment, or signal reflections.
Example: Distorted audio on a radio station due to signal reflections or
interference from other radio signals.
Noise: Noise refers to any unwanted random or extraneous signals that
interfere with the desired communication signal.
It can be caused by various sources, including electrical interference and
atmospheric conditions.
Example: When watching a television program with poor reception, you
might see "snow" or hear static, which is the result of noise in the signal.
 Transmission impairments terminology
Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that a communication
channel or system can carry.
It determines the amount of data that can be transmitted within a given time frame.
Example: A high-definition video stream requires more bandwidth than a standard-
definition stream due to the larger amount of data being transmitted.
Number of Receivers: The number of receivers refers to the devices or endpoints
that receive a transmitted signal.
It's important to consider the capacity and compatibility of the receivers to ensure
effective communication.
Example: A Wi-Fi router broadcasting a signal to multiple laptops, smartphones,
and smart TVs in a home network.
 Internet Protocol (IP) addressing
• Internet Protocol (IP) addressing is a fundamental concept in computer
networking that allows devices to communicate and identify each other on
a network, including the global Internet. IP addresses play a crucial role in
routing data packets across networks and ensuring that data reaches its
intended destination. Here are the key details about IP addressing:
IP Address Types: There are two main types of IP addresses:
1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): This is the older and most widely used
version of IP addressing. IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers, usually represented in
the dotted-decimal format (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): IPv6 was introduced to address the exhaustion
of available IPv4 addresses. IPv6 addresses are 128-bit numbers, often represented
in hexadecimal notation (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
 Internet Protocol (IP) addressing
IP Address Components: An IP address is divided into two main components:
1. Network Portion: This identifies the network to which the device belongs. Routers
use this portion to route data within and between networks.
2. Host Portion: This identifies the specific device within the network. It distinguishes
one device from another within the same network.
IP Address Classes: IPv4 addresses were traditionally divided into five classes
(A, B, C, D, and E), each with a different range of addresses and network sizes.
However, this classification is largely obsolete now due to subnetting and
classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) practices.
Subnetting: Subnetting allows a network administrator to divide a large
network into smaller, more manageable subnetworks. This helps improve
network efficiency, security, and management.
 Internet Protocol (IP) addressing
Private vs. Public IP Addresses:
Private IP Addresses: These are used within a private network and are not routable on the
public Internet. They are used for internal communication and can be reused across
different private networks.
Public IP Addresses: These are unique addresses used to identify devices on the public
Internet. They are assigned by Internet service providers (ISPs) and are globally routable.
Dynamic and Static IP Addresses:
1. Dynamic IP Addresses: These are assigned to devices by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) server. They can change periodically, which is common for
residential Internet connections.
2. Static IP Addresses: These are manually assigned to devices and do not change. They
are often used for servers, routers, and other devices that need a consistent address.
IP Address Resolution: IP addresses are often mapped to more human-friendly
domain names using the Domain Name System (DNS). DNS translates domain
names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses.
 Protocols
A communication protocol is a formal description of digital message formats
and the rules for exchanging that message in between computer systems.
Protocols define a set of formal rules describing how to transmit data
especially across a network.
1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): TCP/IP is a
layered set of protocols TCP is reliable, but complex transport-layer protocol.
TCP/IP is the protocol used by Internet. It adds connection-oriented and
reliability features. TCP is responsible for making sure that the data is
transmitted to other end. It keeps track of what is sent, and re transmits any
data that has not reached its destination. The Internet Protocol (IP) is the
principal communication protocol used for transmitting data packets across
and network using the Internet Protocol Suite. Internet exist due to TCP/IP.
 Protocols
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): This protocol is used for transferring
data between client and server over TCP/IP (Internet). Hence, it is
responsible for uploading and downloading files to and from the server.
3. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): UDP is simple, connection less,
unreliable transport protocol. It performs very limited error checking. It
is mainly used for transmitting multimedia data, which requires faster
transmission and error checking is not used.
4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is a standard
protocol for transmitting electronic mail (email) by the internet. It is a
Internet mail protocol. It is a TCP/IP protocol used to send emails
 Protocols
5. POP (Post Office Protocol): POP is also a protocol for transmitting
email. It is simple but has limited functionality. It is an application layer
Internet standard protocol used by clients to access e-mail from a server
over a TCP/IP connection i.e. internet. POP3 (POP version 3) is used at
present. POP3 is supported by most modern webmail services such as
Gmail and Yahoo mail.
6. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP networking protocol
for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. It is
used transmitting hypertext or HTML based document. It is the
foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web used by web
browser to communication with respective servers.
7. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): HTTPS is
combination of Protocol with the SSL/TLS protocol to provide encrypted
identification of a network. HTTPS connections are often used in World
Wide Web for sensitive transactions. The main objective of HTTPS is to
create a secure channel over an insecure network.