CHAPTER 1 Introduction To Networks

NETWORK ANALYSIS
AND
SYNTHESIS
AMiT-ECE NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS CHAPTER ONE Friday, June 14, 2024 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS
What are network analysis and synthesis?
• In a generally accepted definition of network analysis and
synthesis, there are three key words:
The excitation,
The network, and
The response as depicted in Fig. 1
Cont …
• Network analysis: is concerned with determining the response,
given the excitation and the network.
• In network synthesis: the problem is to design the network
given the excitation and the desired response.
• In this chapter we will outline some of the problems to be
encountered in this book without going into the actual details of
the problems.
• We will also discuss some basic definitions.
SIGNAL ANALYSIS
• For electric networks, the excitation and response are given in terms
of voltages and currents which are functions of time, t.
• In general, these functions of time are called signals.
• In describing signals, we use the two universal languages of electrical
engineering
time and
frequency.
• Strictly speaking, a signal is a function of time.
Cont …
• However, the signal can be described equally well in terms of spectral
or frequency information.
• Between time and frequency, the translation is effected by the Fourier
series, the Fourier integral, and the Laplace transform.
• Consider the sinusoidal signal:
• where is the amplitude, is the phase shift, and is the angular

frequency as given by the equation:
where T is the period of the sinusoid.
• The signal is plotted against time in Fig. 2. Cont …
• An equally complete description of the signal is obtained if we let the
angular frequency ω be the independent variable.
• In this case, the signal is described in terms of , and as shown in Fig.
3a, where
amplitude is plotted
against frequency, and
in Fig. 1.3b, where
phase shift is plotted.
Cont …
• Now suppose that the signal is made up of 2n + 1 sinusoidal components:
• The spectral description of the signal would

then contain 2n + l lines at
as given in Figs. 4a and b.
• These discrete spectra of amplitude
A versus ω and phase shift  versus ω
are sometimes called line spectra.
Cont …
• Consider the case when the number of these spectral lines become infinite and
the intervals between the lines approach zero.
• Then there is no longer any discrimination between
one frequency and another, so that the discrete line
spectra fuse into a continuous spectra, as shown by
the example in Figs. 5a and b.
• In the continuous case, the sum in Eq. above becomes
an integral:
Cont …
• where is known as the amplitude spectrum and as the phase
spectrum.
• As we know, periodic signals such as the sine wave in Fig. 2 can be
described in terms of discrete spectra through the use of Fourier
series.
• On the other hand, a non-periodic signal such
as the triangular pulse in Fig. 6 can only be
described in terms of continuous spectra
through the Fourier integral transform.
CONCEPT OF COMPLEX FREQUENCY
• As we shall see, the complex frequency variable:
is a generalized frequency variable whose real part describes growth

and decay of the amplitudes of signals, and whose imaginary part is
angular frequency in the usual sense.
• The idea of complex frequency is developed by examining
the cisoidal signal:
when is represented as a rotating phasor, as shown in Fig. 7. 11

Cont …
• The angular frequency of the phasor can then be thought of as a
velocity at the end of the phasor.
• In particular the velocity is always at right angles to the phasor, as
shown in Fig. 7.
• However, consider the general case when the velocity is inclined at
any arbitrary angle as given in Figs. and . In this case,
if the velocity is given by the symbol , we see that is composed of
a component at right angle to the phasor as well as a component ,
which is parallel to .
Cont …
In Fig. , has a component toward the origin. As the phasor spins
in a counter clockwise fashion, the phasor decreases in amplitude.
• The resulting wave for the real and imaginary parts of are damped
sinusoids as given by:
which are shown in Fig. 9 below.
.
Cont …
• Note that the damped sinusoid has an exponential envelope decay, .
• In Fig. 8b, the phasor is shown with a positive real component of
velocity .
• Therefore, as the phasor spins, the amplitudes of the real and imaginary
parts increase exponentially with an envelope , as shown by in Fig. 10.
• From this discussion, it is apparent that the generalized cisoidal signal:
• describes the growth and decay of the amplitudes in addition to angular

frequency in the usual sense.
Friday, June 14, 2024 15
Cont …
When , the sinusoid is undamped,
When , the signal is an exponential signal, shown in Fig. 11
When , then the signal is a constant .

• Thus we see the versatility of a complex frequency description.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
• As mentioned before, the characterization of the excitation and
response signals in time and frequency makes up only part of the
analysis problem.
• The other part consists of characterizing the network itself in terms of
time and frequency, and determining how the network behaves as a
signal processer.
• Let us turn our attention now to a brief study of the properties of
linear networks and the general characteristics of signal processing by
a linear system.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
LINEAR: A system (network) is linear if
a) the principle of superposition and
b) the principle of proportionality hold.
• Superposition principle:
if, for a given network, [] and [] are excitation – response pairs, then if
the excitation were
the response would be:

Cont …
• Proportionality principle:
if for a given network, [] is excitation – response pairs, then if
the excitation were , the response would be .
Where the constant of proportionality is preserved by the linear
network.
Cont …
• The two conditions of linearity are summarized in Figure below.
Cont …
• PASSIVE
A linear network is passive if:
a) the energy delivered to the network is nonnegative for any
arbitrary excitation, and
b) if no voltages or currents appear between any two terminals
before an excitation is applied.
Cont …
• RECIPROCAL
A network is said to be reciprocal if when the points of excitation and
measurement of response are interchanged, the relationship between
excitation and response remains the same.
Thus must be true for any choice of points of excitation and
response.
Cont …
• CAUSAL
We say a system is causal if its response is non – anticipatory, i.e., if
In other words, a system is causal if before an excitation is applied

at , the response is zero for .
Cont …
• Time invariant
A system is time invariant if:
implies that
where the symbol means "gives rise to."
To understand the concept of time invariance in a linear system, let us
suppose that initially the excitation is introduced at , which gives rise
to a response .
Cont …
If the excitation were introduced at , and if the shape of the response
waveform were the same as in the first case, but delayed by a time
(Figure beside), then we could say the system is time invariant.
• Another way of looking at this concept
is through the fact that time-invariant
systems contain only elements that do
not vary with time.
• It should be mentioned here that linear
systems need not be time invariant.
Cont …
• DERIVATIVE PROPERTY:
From the time-invariant property we can show that,
if at the input gives rise to at the
output (Figure below), then, if the input
were , i.e., the derivative of ,
the response would be .
 The proof is quite simple. Cont …
 Consider an excitation where is a real quantity.
 By the time – invariant property, the response would be .
 Now suppose the excitation were:
then according to the linearity and time-invariant properties, the

response would be:
Cont …
• Taking the limit as , we see that:
• We can extend this idea to higher derivatives as well as for the

integrals of and , as shown in Figure above.
Ideal model
• Let us now examine some idealized models of linear systems.
• The systems given in the following all have properties which make
them very useful in signal processing.
1) AMPLIFIER:
An amplifier scales up the magnitude of the input, i.e.
where is a constant (Figure below).
Cont …
2) DIFFERENTIATOR: The input signal is differentiated and
possibly scaled up or down (Figure below).
3) INTEGRATOR: The output is the integral of the input, as shown in

Figure below.
4) TIME DELAYER: The output is delayed by an Cont …
amount T, but retains the same wave shape as
the input (Figure below).
Suppose we take the triangular pulse, in Figure below, as the input
signal.
Then the outputs for each of the
four systems just described are
shown in Figures to .
IDEAL ELEMENTS
• In the analysis of electric networks, we use idealized linear
mathematical models of physical circuit elements.
• The elements most often encountered are:
the resistor R, given in ohms,
the capacitor C, given in farads, and
the inductor L, expressed in henrys.
• The endpoints of the elements are called terminals.
Cont …
• A port is defined as any pair of two terminals into which energy is
supplied or withdrawn or where network variables may be measured
or observed.
• In Figure below we have an example of a two – port network.
Cont …
• The energy sources that make up the excitation functions are ideal
current or voltage sources, as shown in Figures and below.
• The polarities indicated for the voltage source and the direction of
flow for the current source are arbitrarily assumed for reference
purposes only.
• An ideal voltage source is an energy source that provides, at a given
port, a voltage signal that is independent of the current at that port.
Cont …
• If we interchange the words "current" and "voltage" in the last
definition, we then define an ideal current source.
• In network analysis, the principal problem is to find the relationships
that exist between the currents and voltages at the ports of the
network.
• Certain simple voltage – current relationships for the network
elements also serve as defining equations for the elements
themselves.
Cont …
• For example, when the currents and voltages are expressed as
functions of time, then the and elements, shown in Figure below, are
defined by the equations:
Cont …
where the constants of integration and are initial conditions to be
discussed in detail later.
Cont …
• Expressed as a function of the complex frequency variable, , the
equations defining the and elements, shown in Figure below, are:
(ignoring initial conditions for the moment)

Cont …
We see that in the time domain, i.e., where the independent variable
is , the voltage – current relationships are given in terms of
differential equations.
On the other hand, in the complex – frequency domain, the voltage-
current relationships for the elements are expressed in algebraic
equations.
Algebraic equations are, in most cases, more easily solved than
differential equations.
Cont …
• When a network is made up of an interconnection of linear circuit
elements, the network is described by its system or transfer function .
• The response and the excitation are related by the equation:
In network analysis, we are given , and we can obtain directly from
the network. Our task is to determine .
NETWORK SYNTHESIS
• We will now briefly introduce some of the problems connected to
network synthesis.
• In network synthesis, we are given the response and the excitation ,
and we are required to synthesize the network from the system
function:
• Since and are voltages or currents, then is denoted generally as an

immittance if is a voltage and is a current, or vice versa.

Cont …
• A driving-point immittance is defined to be a function for which the
variables are measured at the same port.
• Thus a driving – point impedance at a given port is the function:
where the excitation is a current and the

response is a voltage , as shown in Figure
beside.
Cont …
• When we interchange the words "current" and "voltage" in the last
definition, we then have a driving – point admittance.
• An example of a driving – point impedance is the network in Figure
above, where:
• Now suppose the resistor in previous Figure were enclosed in a

“black box”.
• We have no access to this black box, except at the terminals in Figure
below.
Cont …
• Our task is to determine the network in the black box.
• Suppose we are given the information that, for a given excitation , the
voltage response is proportional to by the equation:
An obvious solution, though not unique, is that the network consists
of a resistor of value .
Cont …
• Suppose next that the excitation is a voltage , the response is a current
, and that:
Our task is to synthesize a network equivalent to the network in the

black box.
From a close inspection of the driving – point admittance , we see
that a possible solution might consist of a resistor of
in parallel with a capacitor of 4 farads, as seen in Figure.
Cont …
• The problem of driving – point synthesis, as shown from the
examples just given, consists of decomposing a given immittance
function into basic recognizable parts (such as 3 + 4s).
• Before we proceed with the mechanics of decomposition, we must
first determine whether the function is realizable, i.e., can it be
synthesized in terms of positive resistances, inductances, and
capacitances?
• It will be shown that realizable driving point immittances belong to a
class of functions known as positive real or, simply, p.r. functions.
• From the properties of p.r. functions, we can test a given driving-point
function for realizability.

Cont …
• With a knowledge of p.r. functions, we then go on to examine special
driving – point functions.
• These include functions which can be realized with two kinds of
elements only: the L – C, R – C, and R – L immittances.
• Next we proceed to the synthesis of transfer functions.
• A transfer function or transmittance is a system function for which the
variables are measured at different ports.
Cont …
• There are many different forms which a transfer function might take.
For example, consider the two-port network in Figure below.
• If the excitation is and the response

, the transfer function is a transfer impedance:
Cont …
• On the other hand, if were the excitation and the response, then we
would have a voltage – ratio transfer function
• As for driving – point functions, there are certain properties which a

transfer function must satisfy in order to be realizable.
• We shall study these realizability conditions and then proceed to the
synthesis of some simple transfer functions.
Cont …
• The most important aspect of transfer function synthesis is filter
design.
• A filter is defined as a network which passes a certain portion of a
frequency spectrum and blocks the remainder of the spectrum.
• By the term "blocking," we imply that the magnitude response of the
filter is approximately zero for that frequency range.
• Thus, an ideal low-pass filter is a network which passes all
frequencies up to a cutoff frequency , and blocks all frequencies
above , as shown in Figure below.
Cont …
• One aspect of filter design is to synthesize the network from the

transfer function H(s).
• The other aspect deals with the problem of obtaining a realizable
transmittance H(s) given the specification of, for example, the
magnitude characteristic in previous Figure.
• This part of the synthesis is generally referred to as the approximation
problem.
Cont …
• Why the word "approximation?"
• Because frequency response characteristics of the and elements are
continuous (with the exception of isolated points called resonance
points), a network containing these elements cannot be made to cut off
abruptly at in Fig. 1.29.
• Instead, we can realize low – pass filters which have the magnitude
characteristics of Figure below.
Cont …
• In connection with the filter design problems, we will discuss certain
problems in magnitude and frequency normalization so that, in
designing a filter, we deal with element values such as and instead of
“practical” element values of, for example, and .
• Also we will study a method whereby low – pass filter designs might
be transformed into high – pass, band – pass, and band elimination
filters.
• The mathematical basis of this method is called frequency
transformation.
Network Theorems
To analyze (Determine the output) a network, we may use one or
more of the following mathematical tools (or network theorems).
1) Ohm’s Law 5) Maximum Power Transfer
2) Kirchhoff’s Law (K-Law) Theorem
3) Superposition Theorem 6) Milliman’s Theorem

4) Thevenin’s and Norton's 7) Telligen’s Theorem
Theorem 8) Substitution Theorem
EXERCISE: Find current in 4Ω resistor

CHAPTER 1 Introduction To Networks

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 1 Introduction To Networks

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 1 Introduction To Networks

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

NETWORK ANALYSIS

• where is the amplitude, is the phase shift, and is the angular

• The spectral description of the signal would

is a generalized frequency variable whose real part describes growth

when is represented as a rotating phasor, as shown in Fig. 7. 11

which are shown in Fig. 9 below.

• describes the growth and decay of the amplitudes in addition to angular

When , then the signal is a constant .

the response would be:

Friday, June 14, 2024 18

In other words, a system is causal if before an excitation is applied

then according to the linearity and time-invariant properties, the

• We can extend this idea to higher derivatives as well as for the

where is a constant (Figure below).

3) INTEGRATOR: The output is the integral of the input, as shown in

Friday, June 14, 2024 38

• Since and are voltages or currents, then is denoted generally as an

Friday, June 14, 2024 41

where the excitation is a current and the

• Now suppose the resistor in previous Figure were enclosed in a

Our task is to synthesize a network equivalent to the network in the

function for realizability.

• If the excitation is and the response

• As for driving – point functions, there are certain properties which a

• One aspect of filter design is to synthesize the network from the

3) Superposition Theorem 6) Milliman’s Theorem

You might also like