Basic Concepts of Networking-1

Networking Concepts
Dr. John A, M.Tech, PhD, PDF (CCU, Taiwan)

Associate Professor
Dept of Informatics
FCE, MCTE
Course Objectives and Outcomes
Course Objectives
The objectives of the course Students should understand
the OSI model, network medium, architectures, devices,
services, protocols, topologies, and network security.
Course Outcomes
• At the end of the course,
• Students should be able to design a simple network
application, implement functionalities on different network
layers, compare network protocols, use network monitoring
tools, and diagnose network malfunctions.
Syllabus Contents
Syllabus Contents
Syllabus Contents
Syllabus Contents
Syllabus Contents
Fundamentals of Computer Network and Overview
of TCP/IP Architecture
Fundamentals of Computer Network: Recall
• “Connecting the devices to communicate and share

information and resources”.
• Basic Concepts of Networking
• History of Networking
• Basic Terminologies of Computer Network
• Medium of Communication
• Topologies of Network
• Standard and Protocol
• Types of Computer Network
• Architectures of Computer Network
• Protocols
• Connecting Devices
• Basic networking commands
History of Computer Network
History of Computer Network: Recall
 A computer network is a group of computers that has the potential to

transmit, receive and exchange voice, data, and video traffic.
 A network connection can be set up with the help of either cable or wireless
media. In modern times, computer networks are very important as
information technology is increasing rapidly all over the world.
 The network and data communication are the essential factors to rise
information technology in the world as technology's advancement is on the
system, including the gadgets.
 ARPANET began the networking long ago.
 The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first wide-
area packet-switched network with distributed control and one of the first
computer networks to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Year Event
1961 proposed the earliest computer networks, which was the idea of ARPANET.
1965 In 1965, the term "packet" to describe how to send data between computers on a network.
1969 Although In 1966, the development of ARPANET began, officially started ARPANET in 1969. It
was considered one of the first computer networks in which first two nodes, UCLA and SRI
(Stanford Research Institute) were connected, and to use packet switching.
To provide and define information about network protocols, procedures, and computer
communications, the first RFC surfaced as a document in April 1969.
1969 On 29 August 1969, the first IMP and network switch were sent to UCLA. On ARPANET, the first
data transmission was sent by using it.
1970 NCP, stands for NetWare Core Protocol

1971 In 1971, the first e-mail was sent to across a network to other users by Ray Tomlinson.
1973 While working at Xerox PARC, Robert Metcalfe developed the Ethernet in 1973. In the same
year, ARPA deployed the first international network connection, known as SATNET.
In 1973, VoIP technology and capabilities were officially introduced, which made a VoIP call.
However, until 1995, the software was not available for users that could make VoIP calls.
1974 In this year, the use of first router was began, but they were not considered true IP routers.
1976 Originally called a gateway, Ginny Strazisar develop the first true IP router.
1978 In 1978, the TCP/IP protocol was developed and invented by Bob Kahn for
networks; it was developed with help from Vint Cerf.
1981 In the United States, between IBM mainframe systems, BITNET was created
in 1981 as a network. The U.S. National Science Foundation developed the
CSNET (Computer Science Network) in the same year 1981.
1983 For using TCP/IP, ARPANET finished the transition. The first DNS implement
by Jon Postel and Paul Mockapetris in 1983.
1983 For using TCP/IP, ARPANET finished the transition. The first DNS implement by Jon
Postel and Paul Mockapetris in 1983.
1986 This is the year in which a backbone for ARPANET, the National Science Foundation
Network was came online, which finally took the place of ARPANET in 1990s. In the
same year, with the original BITNET, BITNET II was introduced to deal with bandwidth
issues.
1988 In 1988, the first T1 backbone was included with ARPANET. AT&T, Lucent, and NCR
introduced the WaveLAN network technology in 1988.
In 1988, for the first time, the explanation of network firewall technology was published.
The first firewall, known as a packet filter firewall.
1990 The first network switch was developed and introduced by a U.S. network hardware
company named Kalpana in 1990.
1996 In 1996, an IPv6 was introduced as an improvement over IPv4, as well as
embedded encryption, improved routing.
1997 In June 1997, the 802.11 standards, containing transmission speeds up to
2 Mbps, for Wi-Fi were introduced.
1999 The 802.11a standard, containing transmission speeds up to 25 Mbps to
use the 5 GHz band, was officially made in 1999. Another standard
802.11b was available to use for the public in mid-1999, which offered
transmission speeds up to 11 Mbps. In September 1999, for use with
802.11b, the WEP encryption protocol was released.
2003 802.11g devices, contained transmission speeds up to 20 Mbps, were
available to the public in January 2003. In the same year, for use with
802.11g, the Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) encryption protocol is
released.
2004 In 2004, as a replacement for WPA, the WPA2 encryption protocol was
introduced. By 2006, WPA2 certification was compulsory for all Wi-Fi
devices.
2009 The 802.11n standard can operate on the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths
and offers higher transfer speeds over 802.11a and 802.11g. Officially, it
was made in 2009.
2018 In January 2018, WPA3 encryption was released by the Wi-Fi Alliance,
which comprises security enhancements over WPA2.
Basic Terminologies of Computer Network
1. Network
A group of interconnected devices that can communicate with each other to
share resources and information.
2. Node
Any device connected to a network, such as a computer, printer, or router.
3. Protocol
A set of rules and conventions for communication between network devices.
Common protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
4. IP Address (Internet Protocol Address)
A unique identifier assigned to each device on a network. It allows devices to
locate and communicate with each other.
5. MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)
A hardware address assigned to network interfaces for communications on the
physical network segment.
6. Router
A device that forwards data packets between computer networks, creating an
overlay internetwork. It directs traffic on the Internet.
7. Switch
A network device that connects devices within a single network, using
MAC addresses to forward data to the correct destination.
8. Hub
A basic networking device that connects multiple Ethernet devices, making
them act as a single network segment. Hubs broadcast data to all devices.
9. Firewall
A network security system that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.
10. LAN (Local Area Network)
A network that spans a relatively small area, typically a single building or
campus, allowing devices to communicate within that area.
11. WAN (Wide Area Network)
A network that covers a broad area, such as multiple buildings, cities, or
even countries. The Internet is the largest WAN.
12. Bandwidth
The maximum rate of data transfer across a network path. It is usually
measured in bits per second (bps).
13. Latency
The time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination
across a network. Lower latency means less delay.
14. Packet
A small unit of data transmitted over a network. Networks break down
large data streams into packets for more efficient transmission.
15. Subnet
A subdivision of an IP network that divides a large network into
smaller, manageable sections.
16. DNS (Domain Name System)
A system that translates human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers use to identify each other
on the network.
17. VPN (Virtual Private Network)

A secure network connection established over the Internet, often
used to connect remote users to a private network.
18. SSID (Service Set Identifier)
The name assigned to a Wi-Fi network, allowing users to identify
and connect to it.
19. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
A network management protocol used to automatically assign IP
addresses to devices on a network.
20. NAT (Network Address Translation)
A method used by routers to translate private IP addresses on a
local network to a single public IP address before data is transmitted over the
Internet.
21. Topology
The arrangement or layout of devices in a network. Common
topologies include star, bus, ring, and mesh.
22. Ethernet
A widely used technology for local area networks (LANs), defined by
the IEEE 802.3 standard.
23. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
The foundational protocol suite for the Internet and most modern
networks, providing end-to-end data communication.
24. IEEE
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has
established networking standards since the 1980s to ensure interoperable
networking technology and global connectivity.
25. RFC
A Request for Comments (RFC) is a formal document from the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) that contains specifications and organizational
notes about topics related to the internet and computer networking, such as
routing, addressing and transport technologies.
https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc793.txt ( TCP –Protocol)
https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc9293#:~:text=TCP%20is%20an%20important
%20transport,documented%20in%20a%20piecemeal%20fashion
.
Medium of Communication
 The transmission medium is the physical path/connection between transmitting

and receiving devices in a data transmission system.
 Transmission media is one of the major components of a communication

system.
 The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by

the characteristics of the medium and the characteristics of the signal transmits.
Medium of Communication - Guided Transmission Medium
Guided media provide a physical connection between two devices.

With guided media, the waves/signals are guided as solid
medium/cable goes.
These are uni-directional transmission.
In the case of guided media, the medium itself is more important in
determining the limitations of transmission.
Examples are – twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and optical fiber.
Twisted Pair Cable(TPC):

Features:
 The pair of wires in tpc forms a circuit that can transmit data.
 A twisted pair has a bandwidth to distance ratio of about 1 MHz per
kilometer.
 The performance of the twisted pair can be substantially improved by
adding a metallic shield around the wires.
•Structure:
 It consists of two separate wires/conductors which are normally made of copper and
twisted with each other and makes single one.
 Here, each conductor has its own plastic insulation typically 1 mm thick.
 These cables are twisted together. The wires are twisted in a helical form, similar to a
DNA molecule.
 Twisting of wire is done to reduce crosstalk and noise generated by adjacent pairs
during data transmission.
Types:
• Twisted pair cabling comes in several varieties, two of which are very important:
Category 3 and Category 5. Category 5 has more twists per centimeter resulting
in less crosstalk and a better quality signal.
• There are two types of TPC –
(i) Unshielded Twisted Pair[UTP] Cable
(ii) Shielded Twisted Pair[STP] Cable.
 Category 3 cable, commonly known as Cat

3 or station wire, and less commonly known
as VG or voice-grade (as, for example, in
100BaseVG), is an unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) cable used in telephone wiring.
 category 5 or Alternatively known as an Ethernet
cable or LAN cable. A Cat 5 or is a network cable
that consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire
terminated by an RJ-45 connector.
 Cat 5 cable is used in home and business networks,
providing data transmission speeds of up to 100
Mbps. The maximum recommended length of a Cat 5
cable is 100 meters. Exceeding this length without the
aid of a bridge or other network device could cause
network issues.
 Category 6 (Cat6) twisted pair cables

are commonly used for network cabling in
homes and offices to connect devices to a
local area network (LAN).
 They are an improved version of earlier
Cat5 and Cat5e cables, with better
performance and higher data transfer
speeds.
 Cat6 cables can support speeds of up to 10
gigabits per second (Gbit/s) and are ideal for
high-bandwidth applications such as cloud
computing, multimedia streaming, and
video surveillance.
(i) Unshielded Twisted Pair[UTP] Cable:

 It is ordinary type of tpc and is used in a variety of networks.
 It is the most common kind of copper telephone wiring.
 Mainly use in the home network.
 Each of the eight individual copper wires (4 pairs) in UTP cable is
covered by an insulating material. In addition, the wires in each pair
are twisted around each other.
Shielded Twisted Pair[STP] Cable:
 It is specialized type of tpc i.e. shielded twisted pair is a special kind of copper
telephone wiring used in some business installations.

 Shielded wires are much more resistant to thermal noise and crosstalk effects.
 Mainly use in the business network.
 STP is similar to UTP in that the wire pairs are twisted around each other i.e. STP
also has shielding around the cable to further protect it from external
interference.
 The extra shielding further reduces the chance of crosstalk but the shielding
increases the overall diameter and weight of the cable.
 The maximum segment length of STP cable is 100 meters.
 STP reduces electrical noise both within the cable (pair-to-pair coupling, or
crosstalk) and from outside the
cable (EMI and RFI).
Advantages Twisted pair cable :
• Twisted pair cable is the most widely used transmission media for data
transmission in local area network mainly.
• Twisted Pairs are very effective for relatively short distances (a few
hundred feet), but can be used for up to a few kilometers.
• It is the least expensive type of local-area network (LAN) cable.
• Most of networks today contain some part of twisted-pair cabling at
some point along the network.
• It is easier to handle, install and run.
Use:
• Twisted-pair cable is
Disadvantages Twisted pair cable : mainly used for long
• TPC is limited in distance, bandwidth, and data rate. distance connections
• Higher attenuation. in (old) telephone
• Low durability cable and hence must be maintained at communication line
regular interval. and in most modern
• UTP requires proper grounding at both the ends. Ethernet LAN
• STP cable is heavier and costlier. networks.
Coaxial Cable (Coax):
 Coaxial cable consists of two conductors i.e.

it consists of a hollow outer cylindrical
conductor that surrounds a single inner wire
conductor. The inner conductor is held in
place by either regularly spaced insulating
rings or a solid dielectric material
 A single coaxial cable has a diameter of

from 0.4 to about 1 inch.
 Coaxial cable is used to transmit both

analog and digital signals.
Coaxial Cable (Coax):
Advantages:
• It operates over a wider range of frequencies i.e. using frequency-division
multiplexing, a coaxial cable can carry over
10,000 voice channels simultaneously.
• Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and supports more stations on a
shared line than twisted pair.
• Coaxial cable is perhaps the most versatile transmission medium and has
widespread use in a wide variety of applications.
• Using digital signaling, coaxial cable can be used to provide high-speed I/O
channels on computer systems.
Use:
The most important use of this cable is-
Disadvantages:
i) In Television/Cable TV distribution.
• They are bulky.
ii) Long-distance telephone transmission with
• It is expensive to install for longer
quality.
distances because of its thickness and
iii) Short-run computer system links.
stiffness.
iv) In Local Area Networks
v) short-range connections between devices.
Optical Fiber Cable (OFC):
OFC stands for Optical Fibre Cable. Optical fibre cables are made up of thin
strands, or optical fibres, of either glass or plastic.
Why
 Fibre cable has many benefits, including higher bandwidth and greater
reach.
 OFC or optical fibre cables are more popular than old copper telecom
cables because they offer high-speed broadband service.
 Copper wires lose 94% of their signal, while optical fibre loses only 3%.
 Copper wire is easy to tap, but optical fibres are much more difficult
 Optic fibre has lower latency (the time it takes to transmit data) than
copper wires.
The optical fibre cable is classified based on three factors – the refractive index, the
materials used, and the mode of propagation of light.
The basis of the refractive index OFC is of two types:

 Step Index Fibers: It comprises a core enclosed by the cladding, which has a
single uniform index of refraction.
 Graded Index Fibers: The refractive index of the optical fiber decreases as the
radial distance from the fiber axis increases.
Based on materials, OFC is of two types:
 Plastic Optical Fibers: The poly(methyl methacrylate) is used as a core material
for the transmission of light.
 Glass Fibers: This fiber cable consists of extremely fine glass fibers.
Based on the mode of propagation of light, OFC is divided into:
 Single-Mode Fibers: Used for long-distance transmission of signals.
 Multimode Fibers: Used for short-distance transmission of signals.

Advantages:
• Optical fiber cable is widely used as a back bone for network due to –
 It has highest data transmission rate.
 Bandwidth is higher.
 It has lighter in weight.
 It shows low interferences.
 It required less number of repeaters in its connection.
 It covers long distance connection/telecommunications due
to low power loss.
 it does not suffer from the various noise problems associated with
electromagnetic signals.
 Since there is no electricity used, there is no electrical interference and
related noise.
 The optical cable is resistance for electromagnetic interference.
 Higher Band width – it can support higher band width and hence can
transfer data at a higher rate.
Disadvantages:
 More vulnerable to damage. If we bend fiber optic cables beyond a limit,
it will break.
 High manufacturing cost.
 Setup/installation cost is high i.e. It needs costly splicing/joining tools or
machines. The cables and interfaces used are relatively expensive.
 Fiber optic cables are difficult to splice/join.
 Maintenance cost is also high.
 Working mechanism is comparatively complex.
 Installation or maintenance – it needs trained specialists to install fiber
optic cables which is not available everywhere.
 Unidirectional – Propagation of light is unidirectional and we need two
fibers for bidirectional communication.
Use:
 Widely used in making fast & sensitive data transmission network.

 They are being increasingly used as telecommunication carriers for long
distance digital trunk lines.
Unguided Transmission Medium:
 It is often called wireless communication.

 Unguided media transport data/signal mainly through
electromagnetic waves without using any physical media or a
physical conductor.
 Its Signals are broadcast though air(mostly) or water(rarely), and
thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving
them.
 Frequencies ranging from 3 KHz to 900 THz are used for
wireless communication.
 With un-guided media, the waves/signals are transmitted in all
the direction as air passes. These are omni-directional
transmission.
 The atmosphere and outer space supports unguided transmission
that provide a means of transmitting electromagnetic signals but
Unguided radio signals can travel from the source to destination in several
ways. There is ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight
propagation.
Ground Propagation :
In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of
the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
The distance depends on the power of the signal.
Sky Propagation
In Sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere where they are reflected back to earth.
This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower power
output.
Line-of-Sight Propagation
In Line-of-Sight Propagation, very high frequency signals are transmitted
in straight lines directly from source antenna to destination antenna.
Antennas must be directional, facing each other and either tall enough or
close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth.
(a) Infra-red Wave:

Features:
• A wave having frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz[Tera-Hertz]
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 700 nm) called Infra-red.
• Data transmission rates are near to twisted pair cables.
• Infrared signals are generated and received using optical transceivers.
• This transmission cannot be affected by another system in the next room.
• The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for
data transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital
data with a very high data rate.
• They are useless for long range communication
Advantages:
• These can be used for short range communication.
• Infrared systems represent a cheap alternative to most other methods, because
there is no cabling involved and the necessary equipment is relatively cheap.
Disadvantages:
• Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication.
• They cannot penetrate walls because they are weak signals.
• It cannot be used outside the building as sun rays contain infrared which leads to
interference in communication.
Use:
• Infrared signals can be used for communication between keyboards, mouse
and printers.
• One recent use of infra-red has been for interfacing hand-held and portable
computing devices to Local Area Networks.

(b) Microwave:
Features:
• A wave having frequencies between 1 GHz to 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to
be aligned.
• Microwave is by far the most widely used form of radio transmission.
• It operates in the GHz range with data rates in order of hundreds of Mbps per
channel.
• Structure:
• An important form of microwave system is a satellite system, which is
essentially a microwave system plus a large repeater as satellite in the sky. The
signals transmitted by earth stations are received, amplified, and retransmitted
to other earth stations by the satellite which acts as a repeater.
•Microwave transmission occurs through two

ways – (i) Through unidirectional antenna and
(ii) Through artificial satellite relay.
(i) Microwave antenna are two types: the

parabolic dish antenna and the horn antenna .
•(ii) Satellite relay –
• It requires geo-stationary orbit with the height of 35,784km to match the earth’s rotation.
• It has uplink that receives transmission on one frequency and a downlink that transmits on
a second frequency.
• It Operates on a number of frequency bands known
as transponders.
• It can operate in two ways:-
a) Point to point- Ground station to satellite to ground station.
b) Multipoint (Broadcast link)- Ground station to satellite to multiple receiving stations.
Advantages:
• Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their
small wavelength allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow
beams, which can be pointed directly at the receiving antenna.
• Higher data rates are transmitted/achieved as the bandwidth is more.
• Low power consumption as the signals are of higher frequencies.
• Unidirectional property of microwave helps in avoiding interference by a pair
of aligned antenna to another.
Disadvantages:
• The propagation of microwave is line-of-sight. The problem with this propagation is
that towers that are far apart from each other need to be very tall.
• Line-of-sight will be disrupted if any obstacle, such as new buildings, are in the way.
• Microwaves suffer from attenuation due to atmospheric conditions.
• Signals are absorbed by the atmosphere.
• For long distance communication, repeaters are often needed.
• Even high frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
• Towers are expensive to build.
• High frequency micro waves cannot be received inside the building.
Use:
• Microwave transmission is commonly used in point-to-
point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in
satellite communications, and in deep space radio communications.
• They are also used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and
radio astronomy.
• Microwaves are also used in unicast communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
• Telecommunication carriers and TV stations are the primary users of
microwave transmission.
(c) Radio Wave:

Features:
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz(Kilo-Hertz) and
1 GHz(Giga-Hertz) are normally called radio waves.
• They use reflected and refracted principle of light to change their direction and
hence ideal for communications.
• It uses omnidirectional antenna for data transmission that travel in all directions
from the source, so the transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully
aligned physically.
• The omnidirectional antenna propagates signal in all direction i.e. the sending
and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
Advantages:
• Radio waves are easy to generate and can travel long distances and can
penetrate buildings easily, therefore widely used for communication.
• Radio signals have been used for a long time to transmit analog
information.
• They are particularly preferred for long distance communication over
difficult terrain or across the oceans.
• Because of the ability to pass through the ionosphere (top) layer of
atmosphere, radio wave is suitable for satellite to earth transmission.
• Radio waves are suitable for long-distance wireless data transmission.
• Radio waves/signal can be received both inside and outside of the
building.

Disadvantages:
• It is susceptible to interference wherein a radio wave transmitted by one antenna
may be interfered by another antenna that may send signals using the same
frequency or band.
Use:
• It helps in transferring data between a mobile phone and a computer
provided both have Bluetooth technology.
• Radio waves are used for multicast communications such as radio
(AM and FM radio), maritime radio, television, cordless phones and
paging systems.
• Radio waves are very useful in multicasting and hence used in AM and
FM radios, cordless phones and paging.
• They are used in standard broadcast radio and television, shortwave
radio, navigation and air-traffic control, cellular telephony, and even
remote-controlled toys.
Connectors(Cables)
 The connectors are tools or interface that is used to connect different types
of data communication cables(such as twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber
optic cable etc.) at one end with the computer or other network devices
(such as hub, switch, router etc.)at other end in a network environment for
data communication.
 Connectors may be used in LAN,MAN and WAN.
 There are different types of connectors used uniquely to connect different
cables.
 In LAN, common used connector are –
(i) RJ-45/TPC Connector:

• RJ stands for registered jack.
• RJ45 connectors are the most commonly used standard type of
connectors with Ethernet/TPC cables and networks.
Connectors(Cables)
BNC/Coax connector:
• The BNC connector (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) is used to
connect/disconnect coaxial cable.
• It is used with radio, television, and other radio-frequency electronic
equipment, test instruments, video signals, and was once a popular
computer network connector.
Fiber Optic Cable Connector
• In order for information to be transmitted efficiently, the fiber cores must
be properly aligned.
• They are usually devices that can be connected and disconnected
repeatedly.
• There are many types of fiber optic cable connectors –
• ST (Straight Tip) Connectors
• SC (Standard Connector) Connectors
• MT (Multi-fiber) Connector
Connectors(Cables)
BNC/Coax connector:
• The BNC connector (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) is used to
connect/disconnect coaxial cable.
• It is used with radio, television, and other radio-frequency electronic
equipment, test instruments, video signals, and was once a popular
computer network connector.
Fiber Optic Cable Connector
• In order for information to be transmitted efficiently, the fiber cores must
be properly aligned.
• They are usually devices that can be connected and disconnected
repeatedly.
• There are many types of fiber optic cable connectors –
• ST (Straight Tip) Connectors
• SC (Standard Connector) Connectors
Topology
•Network topology is the study of geometric or graphical arrangement or mapping

or layout of the network elements (may be devices, links, nodes etc.) in a computer
network along with its interconnection among the elements.
•This is also called LAN topology because of these are mostly and mainly
implemented in a LAN network.
Features
•Topology determines the strategy for physically expanding the network, in future.
•Topology gives the shape of the network.
•Topologies can be either physical or logical.
• Physical Topology means the physical design/arrangement of a network with
its required devices, location and cable installation.
• Logical Topology is how data actually transfers/flows in a network as
opposed to its design.
Types
•There are different types of topology in a computer network. These are – [A] Cable/Wired Network
Topology and [B] Wireless Topology.
[A] Cable/Wired Network Topology :

This topology uses cables or wires as transmission media/channel. These are of the
following types –
(1) Mesh Topology (2) Star Topology (3) Ring Topology (4)Bus Topology (5) Tree
Topology (6) Hybrid Topology.
(1) Bus Topology

Definition
• Bus topology has a single common communication line to which all the computers/nodes
are connected.
• The bus topology is the simplest and most widely used topology in local area network
design.
Structure
• It has a single length of cable with a terminator at each end.
Features/Characteristics
• Working Mechanism:
• It is a passive type of topology i.e. only one computer at a time can send a message.
Hence, the number of computers attached to a bus network can significantly affect
the speed of the network.
• A computer in this topology, must wait until the bus medium or cable is free before it
can transmit.
• The computers/nodes attached on the bus cable keep on listening regularly. When
they hear/match data that belongs to them, they receive.
• When one device/node on the bus network wants to send a broadcast message to
another device on the network, it first makes sure no one else on the bus cable is
transmitting, and then it sends information out on the media/cable. All other
devices attached on the network see it, but only the intended/genuine recipient
accepts and processes it. This is accomplished by using data frames which
contain source and destination addresses.
• Each node of bus topology is connected to others nodes via a bus cable.
• The network operating system keeps track of a unique address of each node and
manages the flow of data between machines.
Advantages
• It is simple, reliable, and easy to be used in a small sized local area network.
• It requires least amount of cable to make/connect computers together and is therefore
less expensive than other cabling arrangements.
• It is easy to implement and extend using connectors when required.
• If one computer/node on the bus topology fails, it does not affect the rest of the
traffic on the bus, when removed affected one.
• A new node can be added easily in this topology without affecting other one
connected on the network.
Disadvantages
• In this topology, no two/more computers can transmit data at the same time.
• It does not operate well with heavy load which can slow down a bus considerably.
• Performance degrades as more additional computers are added.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the cable.
(2) Mesh Topology

• In this topology, there is no central connection point.
• Each node in this topology is capable of sending messages to and receiving
messages from other connected nodes.
• In this topology, the nodes act/behaves like as relays and hence passing the
message towards its final destination.
• This topology has multiple connections thus, making it the most fault
tolerant topology available.
• It is a type of network setup or arrangement in which each

computer/node or network device is interconnected with one another. In
other words, every component of the network is connected directly to
every other component.
• Here, each node is connected directly, dynamically and non-
hierarchically.
• Here, each node is connected to at least one/more other node directly.
Advantages
• Here, messages can be received more quickly due to direct connection of
nodes.
• This topology manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices
can transmit/receive data simultaneously.
• A failure of one device/node or adding new node, does not disturb the
transmission or structure of the network.
Disadvantages
• Heavy power consumption.
• Requires much cables to connect it.
(3.) Star Topology

• The name star is mainly due to its layout arrangement like a star.
• A star topology is best suited for smaller networks and works efficiently when
there is limited number of nodes.
• This topology is considered as the most common and widely used LAN topology
in small businesses and other organization.
Structure
• In this topology, each computer/node on a network communicates with a central
hub (also called as a concentrator) that re-sends the message either to all the
computers/nodes or only to the destination computer.
• Here, a hub expands one network connection with other. For example, a four-
port hub connects up to four machines. A single hub is sufficient for a small
network; however large networks require multiple hubs. But, it increases
hardware and cabling costs.
Advantages
• It is more reliable i.e. if one connection/node fails, it does not affect others during
its removal. A new node can also be added easily without affecting others. In
another words, It is easy to replace, install or remove hosts or other devices,
problem can be easily detected-It is easier to modify or add a new computer
without disturbing the rest of the network by simply running a new line from the
computer to the central location and plugging it to the hub.
• Hub detects the fault and isolates the faulty computer/node from the network.
• Use of multiple cables types in a same network with a hub.
• It has good performance
Disadvantages
• It is expensive to install as it requires more cable, it costs more to cable a star
network because all network cables must be pulled to one central point, requiring
more cable length than other networking topologies.
• Central hub dependency i.e. if central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate
suddenly.
• Many star networks require a device/hub/switch at the central point to re-broadcast
or switch the network traffic.
(4.) Ring/Circular Topology

• In this topology, each node is connected to two and only two neighboring nodes.
• The ring does not have an end.
• It is made of short segments that connect one PC to the next PC and so on.
• Here, data is accepted from one of the neighboring nodes and is transmitted onwards to
another node .Therefore data travels in only direction from node to node around the
rings.
• Here, data transmission occurs either in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
• Since, each computer re-transmits data what it receives, hence a ring topology is
an active network and is not subject to the signal loss problems.
• There is no termination end in this topology because there is no end to the ring.
• This type of topology can be found in peer-to-peer networks, in which each machine
manages both information processing and the distribution of data files.
• Examples of ring topology: – IBM Token Ring, Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI).
Structure
• The layout of this topology is similar to the linear bus topology, except that the nodes
are connected in a circle.
Advantages
• It is an orderly network where every device has access to the token (control signal)
and the opportunity to transmit – because every computer is given equal access to
the token, no computer can monopolize the network.
• It performs better operation than a star topology under heavy network load
situation.
• We can create much larger network using this topology token ring concept.
• It does not require network server/central point to manage the connectivity
between the computers/nodes.
Disadvantages
• Network adapter cards and Multi Access Units used in this topology are much
more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs used in bus topology.
• It is much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load.
• The problem finding is difficult to troubleshoot.
• One malfunctioning node or bad port or adding new node or removal of node from
this topology/Multi Access Units can create problems for the entire network.
(5.) Tree Topology

Definition
• This topology is extended form of Bus topology. ( Bus and Star)
• A tree topology combines characteristics of (linear) bus and star
topologies both.
• It consists of groups of star-configured workstations/nodes connected
to a linear bus backbone cable.
•This topology consists of many

layers/branches of bus topology and appears
like a tree, hence the name.
Advantages
• It supports point-to-point connection for nodes.
• It is highly flexible i.e. the other nodes in this network are not affected by
others when one of their nodes get damaged or not working.
• Tree topology has an easy maintenance and easy fault identification
procedure.
Disadvantages
• It is difficult to configure.
• It contains a single point of failure.
Use
• Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network.
(6.) Hybrid Topology

Definition
• A hybrid topology is a specific type of network topology that uses two or more
different combination of network topologies as per need of the organisation.
• This topology can include a mix of any of these such as bus topology, mesh topology,
ring topology, star topology, and tree topology.
• Combination of Star-Ring and Star-Bus networks are the most common used
examples of the hybrid network topology.
Advantages
• This topology is highly flexible than others.
• It has far better fault tolerance i.e. reliable.
• It contains the best features of that topology.
Disadvantages
• Since it uses more than one topology hence its design and installation process is
more complex.
• Since it has more complex structure hence its setup cost is high.
Use
• They are widely used in commercial and educational organisation.
[B] Wireless/Cellular Network Topology :

Introduction
•It is a specific topology only applicable for wireless network.
Definition
•Cellular topology is a wireless topology used to manage the process of communication
among the nodes or devices present in a wireless network.
Features
•This topology is applicable only in wireless network i.e. this topology uses air or waves
as transmission media/channel.
•The data transmission in cellular topology occurs in cellular digital packet data (CDPD)
format.
The components of a cellular topology is –

•Cell :
• Cellular topology consists of several specific circular geographical area/portion called
cell.
• In another words, each cell represents a portion of the total network area.
• Each cell in a wireless network may communicate with other cell for communication as
per need.
• Each cell normally contains several dynamic nodes/devices connected with central hub.
•Central Hub / Cell Head
• Each cell normally contains single centrally located controlling station called central hub.
• Devices that are present within the cell, communicate through this central hub.
• One central hub of a cell is interconnected with other cell’s central hub.
• The central hubs are responsible for routing data across the wireless network.
• They provide a complete network infrastructure.
Advantages
•Here, the central hubs maintains a point-to-point link with devices, hence trouble
shooting is easy when occurs.
•Central hub-to-hub fault tracking is more complicated, but allows simple fault
isolation.
Disadvantages
•When a central hub fails in a wireless network then all devices, serviced by this hub
lose/affect its services.
Standard and Protocol
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and creative market for the
equipment manufacturers and they also guarantee the national and international
interoperability of the data, telecommunication technology, and process.
Standards are mainly used to provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government

agencies, and also to other service providers in order to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity that is necessary for today's marketplace and also in international
communications.
Data communication standards mainly fall into two categories:-
•de facto (which means "by fact"/ "by convention")
Those standards have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as
standards through widespread use. These types of standards are often established
originally by the manufacturers who just seek to define the functionality of their new
product or technology.
•de jure (which means "by law" /"by regulation")
de jure standards are those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized
body.
Standard Organizations
Standards are mainly developed through the cooperation of Standard
creation committees, government regulatory agencies, and forums.
Some Standard Creation committees are :
• International Organization of Standardization(ISO)
• American National Standards Institute(ANSI)
• Electronic Industries Association(EIA)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE)
Protocols
Protocols
A protocol is basically a synonym for the rule. In Computer
Networks, basically, communication occurs between entities in
different systems. An entity is anything that is capable of sending or
receiving information. Any two entities cannot simply send
bitstreams to each other and expect to be understood.
The entities must need to agree on a protocol in order of

occurrence of the communication.
A Protocol is a set of rules that mainly govern data
communications. The protocol mainly defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
Key elements of a Protocol

The key elements of a protocol are as given below:
•Syntax
This term mainly refers to the structure or format of the
data which simply means the order in which data is
presented. For example, A simple protocol might expect the
first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, then the
second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and then the
rest of the stream to be the message itself.
•Semantics
This term mainly refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
How does a particular pattern to be interpreted, and On the basis
of interpretation what action is to be taken? For example, does an
address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the
message?
•Timing
This term mainly refers to two characteristics: At what time the
data should be sent and how fast data can be sent. For example,
if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can
process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and there will be some data loss.
Architecture for Communication
Fundamental Architectures of Computer Network
Layered Architecture of Computer Network

Features of Layered Architecture
 Layered architecture ensures independence between layers, by

offering services to higher layers from the lower layers and without
specifying how these services are implemented.
 Layered architecture segments as larger and unmanageable design
into small sub tasks.
 In layer architecture every network has different number of
functions, layers and content.
 In layered architecture, the physical route provides with
communication which is available under the layer 1.
 In layered architecture, the implementation done by one layer can be
modified by another layer.
Elements of Layered Architecture

There are three different types of elements of a layered
architecture. They are described below:
 Service: Service is defined as a set of functions and tasks
being provided by a lower layer to a higher layer. Each
layer performs a different type of task. Therefore, actions
provided by each layer are different.
 Protocol: Protocol is defined as a set rule used by the layer
for exchanging and transmission of data with its peer
entities. These rules can consists details regarding a type of
content and their order passed from one layer to another.
 Interface: Interface is defined as a channel that allows to
transmit the messages from one layer to the another.

Need of Layered Architecture
 Divide and Conquer Approach: Layered architecture supports divide and
conquer approach. The unmanageable and complex task is further divided into
smaller sub tasks. Each sub task is then carried out by the different layer.
Therefore, using this approach reduces the complexity of the problem or design
process.
 Easy to Modify: The layers are independent of each other in layered
architecture. If any sudden change occurs in the implementation of one layer, it
can be changed. This change does not affect the working of other layers
involved in the task. Therefore, layered architectures are required to perform
any sudden update or change.
 Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular as compared to other
architecture models in computer network. Modularity provides with more
independence between the layers and are easier to understand.
 Easy to Test: Each layer in layered architecture performs a different and
dedicated task. Therefore, each layer can be analyzed and tested individually. It
helps to analyze the problem and solve them more efficiently as compared to
solving all the problems at a time.
OSI/ISO Reference Model


ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and

designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
 The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computer systems.
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication

between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying
hardware and software.
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable

ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

Physical Layer
 The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium.
 It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission
medium.
 It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to
perform for transmission to Occur.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
 Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or
1s) with no interpretation.
 Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer.
 Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also
must be synchronized at the bit level.

 Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of
devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is
shared among several devices.
 Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected
to make a network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every
device is connected to every other device), a star topology (devices are
connected through a central device), a ring topology (each device is connected
to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device is on a common
link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
 Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of

transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In
simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only receive. The
simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two
devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or
simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time.

Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
Link.
Responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
 Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames.
 Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the
data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the
frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender’s network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.
 Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate
at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms
to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize
duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of
the frame.
 Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given
time.
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links).
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

 Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we
need another addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination systems.
The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among
other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
 Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks

(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or
switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of
the network layer is to provide this mechanism.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A
process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees
source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets.
Responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
 Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the
next but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific
process (running program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include
a type of address called a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets
each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the
correct process on that computer.
 Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with
each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and
replace packets that were lost in transmission.
 Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection

oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet
and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented
transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first
before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
 Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single
link.
 Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a
single link.
Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
Responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
 Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either halfduplex (one way at a time)
or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
 Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization

points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is
advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit received
and acknowledged independently.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
 Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually
exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on.
The information must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted.
 Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure

privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption
reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
 Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the

information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the
transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote
file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
 Network virtual terminal :A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical

terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access
files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a
remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in
a remote computer locally.
 Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
 Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.
•The main functionality of the physical

layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
•This layer is responsible for the error-free

transfer of data frames.
•It defines the format of the data on the
network.
•It provides a reliable and efficient
communication between two or more devices.
•The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that

messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of
data.
The Session layer is used to

establish, maintain and
synchronizes the interaction
between communicating
devices.



Advantages:
•It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to develop any

network model.
•It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect other
layers, provided that the interfaces between the layers do not
change drastically.
•It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols.
Hence, it is flexible in nature. Protocols in each layer can be
replaced very conveniently depending upon the nature of the
network.
•It supports both connection-oriented services and
connectionless services.
Disadvantages:
•It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the availability of
appropriate technology. This restricts its practical implementation.
•The launching timing of this model was inappropriate. When OSI appeared,
the TCP/IP protocols were already implemented. So, the companies were
initially reluctant to use it.
•The OSI model is very complex. The initial implementation was
cumbersome, slow and costly.
•Though there are many layers, some of the layers like the session layer and
presentation layer have very little functionality when practically deployed.
•There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like addressing,
flow control and error control are offered by multiple layers.
•The standards of OSI model are theoretical and do not offer adequate
solutions for practical network implementation.
•After being launched, the OSI model did not meet the practical needs as well
as the TCP/IP model. So it was labeled as inferior quality.
TCP/IP Reference Model
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model consists of four layers: the application
layer, transport layer, network layer, Physical and Data Link
Layers.
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network
interface, internetworking, and transport functions that
correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and
these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a
single layer called the application layer.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, and each of them provides specific functionality.
Network Access Layer

•A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer
and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
•It defines how the data should be sent physically through
the network.
•This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the
data between two devices on the same network.
•The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the
IP datagram into frames transmitted by the network and
mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
•The protocols used by this layer are ethernetwork layer is
the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
•A net, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
Internet Layer
•An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
•An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
•The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from
any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they
take.
Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant
part of the entire TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

•IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.
The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to
provide internetwork routing.
•Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
•Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
•Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller
units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the
sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form
an original message.
•Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP
datagram through various devices such as routers.
•ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

•ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address
from the IP address.
ICMP Protocol
•ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
•It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
•A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a
device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
•User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
• It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
• User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error
to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
•Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)It provides a full transport layer services to

applications.
•It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
Application Layer
•An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
•It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
•This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
•When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
•There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be
placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication
system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web
browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is
an application layer protocol.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

•HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data
over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known
as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where
there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
•SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
•SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the
e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.
•DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection
of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
•TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
•FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
The disadvantages of the TCP/IP model are

•It is not generic in nature. So, it fails to represent any protocol stack other than the
TCP/IP suite. For example, it cannot describe the Bluetooth connection.
•It does not clearly separate the concepts of services, interfaces, and protocols. So, it is
not suitable to describe new technologies in new networks.
•It was originally designed and implemented for wide area networks. It is not
optimized for small networks like LAN (local area network) and PAN (personal area
network).
Logical Mapping Between OSI/Reference Model-Protocols-TCP/IP Model

Information Exchange Process
Information flow: The flow of

information is from the top layer
(usually application layer) down to the
physical layer at information source
node; and from the physical layer up to
the application later at the destination
node
 If System A has data from a software application to send to System B,

the data is passed to the application layer. The application layer in System
a then communicates any control information required by the application
layer in System B by prepending a header to the data.
 The resulting information unit (a header and the data) is passed to the
presentation layer, which pretends its own header containing control
information intended for the presentation layer in System B.
 The information unit grows in size as each layer prepends its own header
(and in some cases a trailer) that contains control information to be used
by its peer layer in System B. At the physical layer, the entire information
unit is placed onto the network medium.
 The physical layer in System B receives the information unit

and passes it to the data-link layer. The data link layer in
System B then reads the control information contained in the
header prepended by the data link layer in System A.
 The header is then removed, and the remainder of the
information unit is passed to the network layer.
 Each layer performs the same actions: The layer reads the
header from its peer layer, strips it off, and passes the
remaining information unit to the next highest layer.
 After the application layer performs these actions, the data is
passed to the recipient software application in System B, in
exactly the form in which it was transmitted by the
application in System A.
Types of Networking
Peer to Peer Communication Arch
 A peer-to-peer network is a simple

network of computers. It first came
into existence in the late 1970s. Here
each computer acts as a node for file
sharing within the formed network.
 Here each node acts as a server and
thus there is no central server in the
network. This allows the sharing of a
huge amount of data.
 The tasks are equally divided
amongst the nodes. Each node
connected in the network shares an
equal workload.
Types of P2P networks
 Unstructured P2P networks: In this type of P2P network, each

device is able to make an equal contribution. This network is
easy to build as devices can be connected randomly in the
network. But being unstructured, it becomes difficult to find
content. For example, Napster, Gnutella, etc.
 Structured P2P networks: It is designed using software that

creates a virtual layer in order to put the nodes in a specific
structure. These are not easy to set up but can give easy access
to users to the content. For example: P-Grid, Kademlia, etc.
 Hybrid P2P networks: It combines the features of both P2P

networks and client-server architecture. An example of such a
network is to find a node using the central server.
P2P Network Architecture

 In the P2P network architecture, the computers connect with
each other in a workgroup to share files, and access to internet
and printers.
 Each computer in the network has the same set of responsibilities
and capabilities.
 Each device in the network serves as both a client and server.
 The architecture is useful in residential areas, small offices, or
small companies where each computer act as an independent
workstation and stores the data on its hard drive.
 Each computer in the network has the ability to share data with
other computers in the network.
 The architecture is usually composed of workgroups of 12 or
more computers.
Discussion
• Usage of Octal
The octal number is also used in the aviation

sector in the form of a code.
Discussion - Water is unguided
how?
• Signal Propagation: When using water as a transmission
medium, signals (such as radio waves or acoustic waves)
propagate through the water rather than being confined to a
physical cable. This means the signal can spread out and travel
in multiple directions.
• Underwater Wireless Networks: Use acoustic or radio signals
for communication between devices, such as sensors or
underwater vehicles. These signals propagate freely through
the water.
• Lack of Guiding Structure: Unlike guided media (such as coaxial
cables or fiber optics), water does not have a physical structure
to guide the signal along a specific path. The signal spreads out
and can be subject to reflection, refraction, and absorption.
Discussion - IMEI
IMEI and MAC addresses are unique identifiers used for device identification, they
are designed for different contexts and layers within network infrastructure.
It is not possible or practical to use an IMEI as a MAC address due to differences in

their purpose, format, and the technical standards they adhere to.
MAC – 48-bit hexadecimal number

IMEI – 490154203237518 – 15 digital Number
Open RAN is seen as a critical
component in the deployment of 5G
networks
Open RAN can help reduce the costs of

deploying and maintaining networks in rural
and remote areas,
Open RAN to deploy private 5G networks

tailored to their specific needs, such as in
smart factories, campuses, and other
localized environments.
Why use FDDI?
FDDI offers more powerful

workstations and servers, intensive network
applications, growing distributed client/server
applications, larger spans of distributed
networks, increasing numbers of network
users, and bigger and more powerful software
applications. Also, FDDI offers higher capacity
and performance with more simultaneous
transactions, higher availability due to the dual
ring topology, and longer distance loops, up to
100km. It is also compatible with other
protocols that follow the OSI model, so
integration with most existing and new
technologies is seamless.

Basic Concepts of Networking-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Concepts of Networking-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Concepts of Networking-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Networking Concepts

Dr. John A, M.Tech, PhD, PDF (CCU, Taiwan)

• “Connecting the devices to communicate and share

 A computer network is a group of computers that has the potential to

1970 NCP, stands for NetWare Core Protocol

17. VPN (Virtual Private Network)

 The transmission medium is the physical path/connection between transmitting

 Transmission media is one of the major components of a communication

 The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by

Guided media provide a physical connection between two devices.

Twisted Pair Cable(TPC):

 Category 3 cable, commonly known as Cat

 Category 6 (Cat6) twisted pair cables

(i) Unshielded Twisted Pair[UTP] Cable:

Shielded Twisted Pair[STP] Cable:

telephone wiring used in some business installations.

 Coaxial cable consists of two conductors i.e.

 A single coaxial cable has a diameter of

 Coaxial cable is used to transmit both

The basis of the refractive index OFC is of two types:

Optical Fiber Cable (OFC):

Optical Fiber Cable (OFC):

Optical Fiber Cable (OFC):

 Widely used in making fast & sensitive data transmission network.

Unguided Transmission Medium:

 It is often called wireless communication.

Unguided Transmission Medium:

Unguided Transmission Medium:

(a) Infra-red Wave:

Unguided Transmission Medium:

Unguided Transmission Medium:

Unguided Transmission Medium:

•Microwave transmission occurs through two

(i) Microwave antenna are two types: the

Unguided Transmission Medium:

Unguided Transmission Medium:

Unguided Transmission Medium:

(c) Radio Wave:

Unguided Transmission Medium:

Unguided Transmission Medium:

(i) RJ-45/TPC Connector:

•Network topology is the study of geometric or graphical arrangement or mapping

[A] Cable/Wired Network Topology :

(1) Bus Topology

(2) Mesh Topology

• It is a type of network setup or arrangement in which each

(3.) Star Topology

(4.) Ring/Circular Topology

(5.) Tree Topology

•This topology consists of many

(6.) Hybrid Topology

[B] Wireless/Cellular Network Topology :

The components of a cellular topology is –

Standards are mainly used to provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government

The entities must need to agree on a protocol in order of

Key elements of a Protocol

Layered Architecture of Computer Network

Layered Architecture of Computer Network

Features of Layered Architecture