3rd lecture

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION (ARCH 404)

prepared by

ARC. M M AMINU
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE,ABU ZARIA
mamzayopmo@hotmail.com

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Contents
1) Concrete floor system : i). 1-2 way span; ii). Beam with
slab; iii). Flush slab; iv) waffle/ flat grid v). Floor joist vi).
Drop beam & slab vii). Construction process of suspended
concrete floor
2) Stair cases : a). types b). Construction process of staircase
3) Foundation a). Settlement in foundation b). Functional
requirement c). Retrofitting of foundation
4) Curtain wall system
5) Structural steel frame a). Steel joist/ section b). Hot rolled
steel joist c). Universal section
6) Steel sections a). Hot rolled steel section b). Cold rolled steel
section c). Castellar beam
7) Skeletal frame a) general design b). Commercial use c). Floor
system
FOUNDATION
1. DEFINATION
This is the part of a building which is in direct
contact with the ground and transmits the load of
the building to the ground.

2. PURPOSE OF FOUNDATION
The foundation of a building is designed to
transmit loads to the ground so that any movements
of the foundation are limited and will not adversely
affect the functional requirements of the building

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FOUNDATION cont…
3. SETTLEMENT IN FOUNDATION
Soil is the basic material of the ground on which a
foundation rests on.
Apart from rock, soils of various types undergo
compression of varying degrees and under severe
conditions will cause the building to move in downward
direction, which is known as settlement.
If settlement is uniform over the entire area of the
building, no harm is caused.
If settlement varies from one point in the foundation to
the other it is known as differential settlement.
Distortion of the building will occur and may result in
damage to the building fabric. 4
FOUNDATION Continue….
 Differential settlements should therefore be kept
within limits depending on the type of the structure
and its ability to withstand differential movements.

 Movement of the foundations may be caused either by

i. the load of the building on the ground. which is due to
the compression of soil below foundations or because
of shear failure due to overloading. OR

ii. movements of the ground independent of the load.

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FOUNDATION Continue….
 Here the ground soil may be cohesive or non-
cohesive.
 Settlement Movements on non-cohesive soils, such as
gravels and sand, take place as building is erected
and is described as IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT.
 On cohesive soils such as clay, the settlement is
gradual as water or air are expelled from pores in the
soil. This is called CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT and
may continue for several years after completion of the
building.

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FOUNDATION Continue….
4. FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
To transmit all dead, superimposed and wind loads
from the building to the soil on which the building rests,
so as to limit any damage due to relative settlement.
5. CHOICE OF FOUNDATION TYPE
The following factors should be considered:
i.Soil condition
ii.Type of structure
iii.Structural loading
iv.Economic factors
v.Time factors relative to the proposed contract period
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FOUNDATION Continue….
5. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
Foundation are made from mass or reinforced concrete
and may be divided into;
a)Shallow Foundations (D<= B)
b)Deep Foundations (D> B)

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FOUNDATION Continue….
a) Shallow foundation;

 These transfer the building load to the soil at a

level close to the lowest floor of the building.
 They include:
i. Strip foundation
ii. Pad foundation
iii. Raft foundation
 Occasionally they may be deep where there are
basement walls.
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FOUNDATION Continue….
b). Deep Foundation
These include;
i.Piles and
ii.various types of Pier foundations
They transmit their loads at considerable distances below
the ground floor.

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FOUNDATION Continue….
5. FURTHER CLASSIFICATIONS
a). Strip and Slab Foundation
i.Wide strip foundation
ii.Isolated Column foundation
iii.Continuous Column
iv. Combined Column
v. Cantilever foundation
vi.Pile (slab) foundation
b). Raft Foundations
i.Solid slab raft
ii.Beam and Slab raft
iii.Cellular raft 11
FOUNDATION Continue….
c). Pile Foundations
i.Friction pile
ii.End-Beam Pile
d) Piers
i.Masonry Pile
ii.Mass concrete
iii.Cylinders and monolithic

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FOUNDATION Continue….
a). Strip and Slab Foundation
A continuous strip of concrete supporting load-bearing
walls.
For a single storey building strip foundations will
typically be 450mm wide and at least 200mm deep,
 and for two storeys 600mm wide and 200mm deep

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FOUNDATION Continue….
i. Wide strip foundation
 Wider than 900mm
 Where the soil is soft or of a low load-bearing
capacity, wide strip foundations can be used to
spread the load
over a larger
area, reinforced
with steel so that
the loading per
m² is reduced. 14
FOUNDATION Continue….
ii. Isolated Column foundation
It is provided under columns to transfer the load
safely to bed soil
These footings may be slab,
stepped or sloped ones.

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FOUNDATION Continue….
iii. Combined Column foundation
A combined footing is the one which supports two
columns and it may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
The aim is to get uniform
pressure distribution under
the footing.
For this the center of gravity
of the footing area should
coincide with the center of
gravity of the combined loads
of the two columns.
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FOUNDATION Continue….
iv. Cantilever foundation
In buildings where, for any reason, it is not
desirable or permissible to build foundations under an
adjoining building, cantilever girders are used to
support the columns at the party line.

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FOUNDATION Continue….
b). Raft Foundations
A reinforced concrete raft or mat is used on very weak
or expansive soils such as clays or peat.
A raft is an alternative to piles as it can be less
expensive.
Mat foundation is constructed
of RCC slab covering the whole
area of the bottom of the structure.
The slab is provided with steel
reinforcing bars in both directions.
It is up to 300mm thick.
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FOUNDATION Continue….
i). Solid Slab Raft Foundation
It is used when column situated at equal distance and
column loads are equally distributed on the foundation,
It is designed as having the uniform slab thickness.
The foundation slabs are
reinforced, with two steel
meshes. One placed at the
lower faces and another at
the upper face.

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FOUNDATION Continue….
ii). Beam and Slab raft Foundation
It is used when column loads are unequally distributed or where
foundation is of a very heavy structure where stiffness is principal
requirement.
beams are provided with the flat slabs.
The beams add stiffness to the raft foundation.
 The foundation slabs are
reinforced with two more
steel meshes. One placed on
the lower face and another
at the upper faces of the
raft foundation.

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FOUNDATION Continue….
iii). Cellular raft Foundation
It is used when the foundation is constructed for very
heavy loads and on loose soil or where soil tends for
uneven settlement.
In such case, the thickness of the raft slab may exceed 1
meter.
here cellular raft
foundation is more
preferable than
ordinary raft foundation.

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FOUNDATION Continue….
 This type of foundation consists two slabs where a
beam is constructed of two slabs in both directions
forming hollow cellular raft foundation.
 These foundations
are highly rigid and
more economical than
other foundations in
such type of poor
soil condition.

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FOUNDATION Continue….
c). Pile Foundation
It is used when;
 the good soil is at higher depth (10 or 15 m) or
soil having low bearing capacity.
the load of the super structure is heavy and its
distribution is uneven
The top soil has poor bearing capacity
The subsoil water level is high
There is large fluctuations in subsoil water level
Canal or deep drainage lines exist near the foundation
The structure is situated on the sea shore or river bed
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FOUNDATION Continue….
 There are two fundamental types of pile foundations
(based on structural behaviour), each of which works in its
own way.
i. End-Bearing Pile
ii. Friction pile
i). End Bearing Piles
 These piles are used to transfer
the load through water or soft soil
of ground to a suitable hard bearing
stratum such as rock.
 The load of the building is
transferred through the pile onto the
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strong layer.
FOUNDATION Continue….
 In a sense, this pile acts like a column.
 The key principle is that the bottom end rests on the
surface which is the intersection
of a weak and strong layer.
 The load therefore bypasses
the weak layer and is safely
transferred to the strong layer

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FOUNDATION Continue….
ii). Friction Piles
The pile transfers the load of the building to the
soil across the full height of the pile, by friction.
In other words, the
entire surface of the
pile, which is
cylindrical in shape,
works to transfer the
forces to the soil.
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 UNDERPINNING
It is the process of strengthening the foundation of an
existing building.
Reasons for Underpinning :
1). Conversion Works
The usage of the structure has changed.
2). Protection Works
The existing foundation is not strong or stable
The properties of the soil supporting the foundation may have
changed
Stabilization of the foundation soil to resist against natural
calamities
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UNDERPINNING
3). Remedial Works
Mistakes in initial foundation design.
Work on present structure than building a new one
4). Structural Conditions
degradation of timber piles used as a foundation.
Rise and lowering of the water table
Structures that are built over soil with a bearing
capacity not suitable for the structure would cause
settlement.

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Why the UNDERPINNING cont…
PHILOSOPHY BEHIND UNDERPINING
to provide solutions for redistributing the weight of
the building to an adequate support.

The above is done by extending the foundation in

depth or breadth so it either rests on a more
supportive soil stratum or distributes its load across
a greater area.

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METHODS OF UNDERPINNING
1). Mass Concrete Underpinning (Pit method)
Here sections are excavated below the foundations one
by one and then filled with concrete.
 The soil below the existing foundation is excavated in
a controlled manner through stages or pins.

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UNDERPINNING
 When strata suitable is reached, the excavation is
filled with concrete and kept for curing, before
next excavation starts.
 In order to transfer the load from old foundation
to new one, a new pin is provided by means of
placing dry sand-cement pack.
 This tends to be a long and disruptive process, but
it can be effective for shallow foundations.

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UNDERPINNING
2). Beam and base underpinning: It involves inserting a
single concrete beam underneath the existing foundations
to give extra support.

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Beam and base underpinning cont..
It is also known as Pier and Beam. Here reinforced
concrete beams are
placed to transfer
the load to mass
concrete bases or
Piers.

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UNDERPINNING
3). Mini Piled Underpinning
This is done where the loads from the foundation have to
transferred (through the weaker soil to a level) to a strata
located at a distance greater than 5m.

This method is adaptable for soil that has variable nature.

Piles of diameter between 150 to 300mm in diameter is
driven which may be either augured or driven steel cased
ones.

Because it involves no excavation, it has the advantage of

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causing relatively little disruption.
UNDERPINNING
4). Pile Method of Underpinning
Here piles are driven on adjacent sides of the wall that
supports the weak foundation.
A needle or pin penetrates through the wall that is in
turn connected to the piles.
 These needles behave like
pile caps.
Settlement in soil due to water
clogging or clayey nature can be
treated by this method
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UNDERPINNING
5). Jet grouting (Expanding resin injection).
It involves injecting a resin or chemical compound into
the ground, which then fills any cavities and provides
extra support.
if the injection is continued, the structure above may
be raised and re-levelled.
This relatively new method of underpinning has been
in existence for approximately 30 years, and because it
does not involve any construction or excavation set-up,
is known to be a clean, fast and non-disruptive
underpinning method.

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THANK YOU

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