Module 2

Mathematical Language
and Symbols
Topic 2 - 5

LOGIC AND FORMALITY

 Specific Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able

to:

1. Define what logic is.

2. Define what formality is and tell whether the
statement is formal or non-formal.
3. Show the relationship between grammar in
English and logic in Mathematics.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

 What comes first in your mind when we speak about
logic? Do you have any idea what logic is all about?
Could we say that if a person thinks correctly, then he has
logic? There are some people arguing whether a logic is
an art or it is a science. Now, whether it is an art or a
science, studying logic could be very important not only
in the field of mathematics but in other sciences such as
natural science and social science. On this module, we
will studying the fundamental concept of logic but
basically logic as mathematical language.
Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)
What is logic?

In this particular module, we are

going to talk about logic as a mathematical
language but a deeper discussion of logic as a
science as well as its application will be
tackled in module 6. It is very essential to
understand better what logic is as a language.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

What is logic?
But first, let us have a definition in logic. In your social
science courses, logic could be defined as the study of the
principles of correct reasoning and it is not a psychology of
reasoning. Based on the definition which is logic is the study of the
principle of correct reasoning, one of the principles in logic that is
very much important to study is on how to determine the validity of
one's argument. Studying mathematics is also studying theorems.
The proof of the theorem uses the principle of arguments in logic.
So, in this case, we could say actually that the language of
mathematics is logic.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

What is logic?
In short, a mathematical statement is also a
grammar. In English, when we construct a sentence or
sentences, we always check if it is grammatically correct but
in Mathematics, we check mathematical statements or
sentences in a logical structure. Wherever you go, we have
a common language in mathematics. In order not to conflict
with in an English word, we use appropriate symbols in
mathematics so that there will no ambiguity on how to
communicate as to the meaning of a mathematical
expression or even in mathematical sentences
Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)
Formality

As stated by Heylighen F. and Dewaele J-M in

the “Formality of Language: Definition and
Measurement”, an expression is completely formal
when it is context-independent and precise (i.e.
non-fuzzy), that is, it represents a clear distinction
which is invariant under changes of context. In
mathematics, we are always dealing in a formal
way.
Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)
 Suppose that somebody asked you that the result of
adding 5 to 3 is 8 or let us say that if a variable x is an even
number then the square of this variable x would be also an even
number, you would agree that both mathematical sentences or
statements are true and there is no reason for you to doubt.
Those two example statements are precise and it is also an
independent. These are the two characteristics in mathematics
that the statement must have to say the mathematical sentence is
in a formal manner. Speaking of statement, statement is the main
component of logic in mathematics.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

 When we say mathematical logic, it is a
statement about mathematical objects that are taken
seriously as mathematical objects in their own right.
More generally, in mathematical logic we formalize,
that is, we formulate in a precise mathematical way
its definition, theorem, lemma, conjecture, corollary,
propositions and the methods of proof which will be
discussed in our next lesson.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

These are the major part of formality in mathematics.
1. Definition

One of the major parts of formality in mathematics is the definition itself. When we say definition, it is a
formal statement of the meaning of a word or group of words and it could stand alone.

Example of this is a definition of a right triangle. What is the exact or formal definition of this? A right
triangle consists of two legs and a hypotenuse. The two legs meet at a 90° angle and the hypotenuse is the longest side
of the right triangle and is the side opposite the right angle. Here, you will see the exactness and the precision of the
definition of a right triangle.

Now suppose we are going to define “carabao”. Can you give a definition for this? Maybe, some of you will
define a carabao as a black and strong animal that helps the farmer in plowing the rice field. But, have you noticed that
this is not a formal definition? How about the cow and the horse? These are also an animal that could also help the
farmers in plowing the field. How about the machine tractor? Are we not considering this machine that could possibly
help our farmers in plowing the rice field? So, we cannot say that is a formal definition since it cannot stand alone.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

These are the major part of formality in mathematics.
2. Theorem

Another statement that could be considered as a formal statement is the theorem. You will encounter this
word in all books of mathematics especially if it is pure mathematics. In your algebra subject during your high
school days, have you studied different laws and principles in mathematics? These are just really theorems that
have been proven true and justified using the concept of mathematical logic and all you need to do is to apply those
laws and principles, isn’t it? But what does the theorem mean? A theorem is a statement that can be demonstrated
to be true by accepted mathematical operations and arguments. In general, a theorem is an embodiment of some
general principle that makes it part of a larger theory. The process of showing a theorem to be correct is called
a proof.
An example of a theorem that we all know is the Pythagorean Theorem. This is a very well-known
theorem in mathematics. The theorem stated that the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum
of the squares of the other two sides. If the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle, or the long side) is
called c and the other two sides are a and b, then this theorem with the formula a2 + b2 = c2. You will notice that the
theorem is precise in a form of if-then statement. The if-then statement is one of the statements in logic.
So, a statement could not be considered a theorem unless it was proven true using mathematical logic.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

These are the major part of formality in mathematics.
3. Proof

To be able to say that a theorem is true, it should undergo the process of proving. But
what do we mean by proof or a mathematical proof. Proof is a rigorous mathematical argument which
unequivocally demonstrates the truth of a given proposition. The different methods on proof are as
follows:

1. Deductive
2. Inductive
3. Direct Proof
4. Indirect Proof
5. Proof by Counterexample
6. Proof by Contradiction

All of these methods of proof are written together with the correct mathematical logic and
preciseness. Discussion and illustrative examples on these different methods of proof will be tackled in
module 3.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

These are the major part of formality in mathematics.

Proposition
When we say proposition, it is a declarative statement that is true or
false but not both. This statement is another major part of formality since
all types of proposition are precise and concise. Different propositions that
can be also said as logical connectives are as follows:
a) Negation; 
b) Conjunction; 
c) Disjunction; 
d) Conditional;  “If-then statement”
e) Biconditional;  “If and only if statement”
All of the statements can be transformed into symbols. Details and
specific lessons about this will be tackled in module 6.
Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)
These are the major part of formality in mathematics.

5. Corollary

What is corollary? When we say corollary in

mathematics, it is also a proposition that follows with little
or no proof required from one already proven. An
example of this is it is a theorem in geometry that the
angles opposite two congruent sides of a triangle are also
congruent. A corollary to that statement is that an
equilateral triangle is also equiangular.
Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)
These are the major part of formality in mathematics.
6. Lemma

Another formal statement is a lemma and it can also be considered as a theorem. The
only difference of a lemma into a theorem is that lemma is a short theorem used in proving a
larger theorem. As we all know that a theorem is a precise statement since it was proved to be
true with the use of mathematical logic. So, it is precise. If lemma is a shorter version of a
larger theorem and theorem is a precise statement, we could say that a lemma is also a precise
statement.

Let us have a concrete presentation for a lemma. Let us say the theorem stated that “Let
f be a function whose derivative exists in every point, then f is a continuous function.” Then
another theorem about Pythagorean and this theorem is about right triangles that can be
summarized in an equation x2 + y2 = z2. The consequence of the previous theorem is stated in a
corollary which is “There is no right triangle whose sides measure 3cm, 4cm and 6cm. Now,
we can more simplify our given theorem in the form of “Given two line segments whose
lengths are a and b respectively, there is a real number r such that b = ra”.
Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)
These are the major part of formality in mathematics.

6.Conjecture
A proposition which is consistent with known data, but has
neither been verified nor shown to be false. It is synonymous or
identical with the hypothesis also known as educated guess. We
can only disprove the truthfulness of a conjecture when after using
a counterexample we found at least one that says the statement is
false.
Let us say we have 75 different balls in a bingo urn labelled
as 1 – 75. What will be our conjecture? We could say that “All
numbers in an urn is a counting number from 1 to 75.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

Self-Learning Activity

A. Tell whether the following statements are formal or non-formal. Write F if your answer
is formal and NF if it is non-formal on the space provided before each item.

1. An acute triangle is a triangle that all included angles are less than 90 degrees.

2. The diagonal of a rhombus is perpendicular to each other.

3. A number is an even number if and only if n must be squared.

4. A number n is an odd number if and only if n = 2k + 1 where k is any integer.

5. An odd number raised to a third power is always an odd number.

Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)

Self-Learning Activity

B. Look for any Mathematics books. Write at least one of the following:

1. Definition

2. Theorem

3. Corollary

4. Lemma

5. Postulate

6. Axiom

7. Conjecture
Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)
C. Make a formal and non-formal definition for the
following terms:

1. Table
2. Graph
3. Letters

D. Give an example for the following proposition;

1. Negation 3. Disjunction 5. Biconditional
2. Conjunction 4. Conditional
Module 2 | Topic 2-5 : Four Basic Concepts (Logic and Formality)