Hydrostatic forces on surfaces

* A static fluid element may be subjected to two forces,

namely a body force (due to gravity) and normal surface
forces
• Normal surface forces are the forces exerted on the fluid
element by the surrounding fluid or other sources
• Force exerted on immersed surfaces by the static fluid is
due to pressure distribution on the surfaces
• Need to determine the pressure forces on the entire surface
of a hydraulic device and structures, eg. submarines, ships,
pipes, dams, gates, etc.
• Submerged surface may be horizontal plane surface,
vertical plane surface, inclined plane surface and curved
surface
Total pressure
Force exerted by static fluid on a surface (curved or plane) when the
fluids come in contact with the surface
• It acts normal to the surface and it is known as
total pressure.
Centre of pressure
The point of application of total pressure on the
surface.
Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity (or centroid) is the point
where the whole weight of the body lies.
*Centre of pressure lies below centre of gravity
Horizontally immersed surface
Total pressure force on the surface, F

(where = height of centre of pressure (hC)

= height centre of gravity (hG)
Vertically immersed surface
Total pressure force on the surface, F

Centre of pressure (hC)

Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Example 4
Example 5
Inclined immersed surface
Total pressure force on the surface, F

Centre of pressure (hC)

Example 6
Example 7
Example 8
Example 9
Example 10
Curved immersed surface
Total resultant force on the curved surface
Example 11
Example 12
Example 13
Example 14
Example 15
 Buoyancy and Floatation
A body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid is under two forces
1. Gravitational force due to its weight
2. Buoyancy force due to the fluid on the body
* Stability and floatation is key
* Applications of floating and submerged bodies
are
• boats,
• ships,
• submarines and
• toys
Buoyancy (B)
• A body feels lighter and weighs less in fluid (water) than air
• This tendency for an immersed body to be lifted up
in the fluid
• An upward force on the body due to the fluid tend to lift it up
Buoyancy Force (FB)
• The force tending to lift up an immersed body against the
gravitational force is called buoyant force
• It acts upward and against gravity
• It is also called upthrust
• Equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
Archimedes’ Principle
“When a body is immersed in a fluid either wholly or
partially, it is buoyed or lifted up by a force, which is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body”
Centre of buoyancy
• It is the point of application of the force of buoyancy on the body
• At the centre of gravity of the volume of fluid displaced
• Calculated using the Archimedes’ principle
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Example 4
Metacentre
• Metacentre (M) is the point about which a floating body starts oscillating
when it is given a small angular displacement
• The point of intersection between the normal axis of the floating body
which passes through the points B and G and a vertical line passing through
the new centre of buoyancy
• When this body is given a small angular
displacement (or angle of heel), such as α
in clockwise direction, the centre of
buoyancy moves to a new position
Metacentre height
• Metacentric height is the distance between the centre
of gravity G and the metacentre M of a floating body.
• The normal ranges of metacentric heights for different
ships are
(i) sailing ships: 0.45 to 1.25 m,
(ii) battle ships: 1 to 1.5 m,
(iii) merchants ships: 0.3 to 1 m and
(iv) river crafts: up to 3.5 m
• The metacentric height can be determined using
(i) analytical method and (ii) experimental method.
(BM = metacentric radius)

(GM = metacentre height)

When G lies below B, the GM is

Example 5
Example 6
Example 7
Example 8
Stability of floating & submerged bodies
1. Stable
• Body returns to its initial position (due to upthrust and
weight) after a small angular displacement (by an eternal
force)
2. Unstable
• Body does not return to its initial position and heels
further away after slightly tilting
3. Neutral
* Body occupies a new position and remains at rest after
slightly tilting
Stability of submerged bodies
1. Body remains in stable equilibrium when G lies
below B.

2. Body remains in unstable equilibrium when G lies

above B.

3. Body remains in neutral equilibrium when G

coincides with B.
Stability of floating bodies
1. Body remains in stable equilibrium when G lies
below M.

2. Body remains in unstable equilibrium when G lies

above M.

3. Body remains in neutral equilibrium when G

coincides with M.
 Fluid kinematics
- deals with the geometry of fluid motion in terms of displacement,
velocity and acceleration without considering the forces causing
the motion
- deals with the study of velocity and acceleration of fluid particles
in motion and their distribution in space without considering any
force involved
Types of fluid flow
1. Steady and unsteady flows
*Steady low: Flow in which fluid characteristics (velocity,
density, pressure, etc.) do not change with time.
Mathematically, , ,
*Unsteady (or transient) flow: Flow in which fluid
characteristics (velocity, density, pressure, etc.) do change
with time.
Mathematically, , ,
2. Uniform and non-uniform flows
* Uniform flow: The flow in which the fluid velocity does not change
with location over a specified region at any given time
Mathematically, ,

(space rate of change of the flow parameters at any given time is equal
to zero)
* Non-uniform flow: Flow in which the fluid velocity changes with
location over a specified region at any given time
Mathematically, ,
(space rate of change of the flow parameters at any given
time is not equal to zero)
3. Laminar and turbulent flows
• Laminar flow: characterized by a smooth flow of one layer (or
lamina) of fluid over the adjacent layer.
* Fluid particles move in well-defined paths (or streamlines)
* Viscous flow or streamline flow
Reynolds number < 2000 (flow in a pipe)
• Turbulent flow: when the fluid particles move in a
zigzag manner, i.e., entirely in a disorderly manner
Reynolds number > 4000 (flow in a pipe)
Compressible and incompressible flow
Compressible flow is the flow in which the density of the
fluid does not remain constant.
ρ ≠ Constant

Incompressible flow the flow in which the density remains

constant is called incompressible flow.
ρ = Constant
1-D, 2-D and 3-D flow
1-D flow is the flow in which the parameter such as velocity is a
function of time and has only one space coordinate.
* The flow parameters vary only in one direction

For a steady one-dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of one

space coordinate only
* The variation of velocities in other two directions is zero.
2-D flow is The flow in which the parameter such as velocity is a
function of time and contains two space
coordinates
* The variation of velocities in other two directions is zero.

For a steady two-dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of two

space coordinates only
* The variation of velocity in third direction is zero
3-D flow is the flow in which the parameter such as velocity is a
function of time
* It contains three space coordinates

For a steady three-dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of

three space coordinates
Rotational and irrotational flow
Rotational flow is the flow in which the fluid
particles rotate about their own axis

Irrotational flow is the flow in which the fluid

particles do not rotate about their own axis
Fluid flow pattern
The fluid flow pattern may be described by means of streamlines,
stream-tubes, pathlines, streaklines and timelines
1. Streamlines is defined as an imaginary line drawn through a
flowing fluid in such a way that the
tangent to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow
at that point.

2. Stream-tubes is a stream-tube is a cylindrical passage or tube

which may be imagined to form by a bundle of neighbouring
streamlines through which the fluid flows
3. Pathline is the trace of the path of a single particle over a period
of time. It shows the direction of the velocity of a fluid particle at
successive instants of time.
4. Streakline is a line traced by a fluid particle passing through a
fixed point in a flow field is known as streakline.
5. Timeline is the line formed by a number of adjacent
fluid particles in a flow field marked at a given instant.
Example 1
 Acceleration of a fluid particle
The motion of fluid particles at various points and at successive instants
of time is to be observed for complete description of a fluid flow.
The fluid motion is described by two methods,
1.Lagrangian method 2. Eulerian method.
With Lagrangian method a single particle is followed over the flow
field during its course of motion by a moving rectangular
coordinate system and its behaviour is observed.
Let the initial coordinate of a fluid particle be a, b and c which
change to
x, y and z after time interval t.
Eulerian method
The motion of fluid is specified by velocity components
expressed as functions of space and time in the control
volume.
* Eulerian method does not follow an individual particle
Convective acceleration and local acceleration
Example 2
Example 3
Example 4
Rate of flow (discharge)
The rate of flow (or discharge) is defined as the
quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a
section of a pipe or a channel.
Generally, the value of rate of flow is denoted by Q.

A = cross sectional area of pipe, m2

V = average velocity of liquid, m/s
Q = discharge of volume flow rate, m3/s
Continuity equation
It is an equation based on the principle of conservation of mass.
The mass of a fluid passing through different sections of a pipe is the same if
no fluid is added or removed from it.
Example 5
Example 6
Example 7
 Fluid Dynamics
Fluid dynamics deals with fluid motion considering the
forces causing the flow.
* It is governed by Euler’s and Bernoulli’s equations.
* These equations are called the energy equation.
* It is derived by Newton’s second law of motion.
- Fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous.
Energy and Forces Acting on a flowing fluid
Energy of a Flowing Fluid
* When a fluid flows, it transfers energy from one form to another.
* The total a flowing incompressible fluid remains in various forms.
* These three forms of energy are potential energy, kinetic energy
and pressure energy .
• It is required to express the energy as the head of fluid in metres.
1. Potential energy (PE)
• It is the energy possessed by a liquid due to the virtue of its position with
respect to the datum line
• The PE of the liquid with mass m at a height z above a datum line is
PE = mgz
Bernoulli’s equation
Potential head is potential energy per unit weight and
expressed as
Potential head = mgz/mg = z
2. Kinetic energy (KE)
KE is the energy possessed by a liquid due to the virtue of its motion
If m is the mass of the moving liquid with a velocity V, then kinetic energy of
the liquid is
KE = mV 2/2
Kinetic head is kinetic energy per unit weight and it is expressed as
Kinetic head = mV 2/2 /mg = V 2/2g
3. Pressure energy (PEE)
• It is the energy created by a liquid at rest when contained in a
container
• It is also equal to the flow energy (or flow work)
• Pressure head is pressure energy per unit weight
Pressure head = p/w = p/ρg
Where p is the pressure of liquid and w is its weight density
4. Total energy (TE)
The total energy of a flowing liquid in terms of head is given as
Total head = Z + V 2/2g + p/ρg
Euler’s Equation of Motion

Few assumptions include (i) flow is steady, (ii) motion of fluid element is along a
streamline and (iii) fluid is ideal (frictionless, i.e., viscosity is zero).
Bernoulli’s Equation of Motion
Assumptions include (i) flow is steady, (ii) motion of fluid element is along a
streamline (i.e., flow is one-dimensional), (iii) fluid is ideal (frictionless, i.e.,
viscosity is zero), (iv) the flow is incompressible (i.e., density of fluid remains
constant), (v) the flow is continuous and velocity is uniform, (vi) the flow is
irrotational, (vii) only gravity and pressure forces are present and no energy
(heat or work) is either added or extracted from the fluid.
For Real fluids

Where hL = energy loss per unit weight of fluid between 1 and 2

Bernoulli’s equation from energy equation

for steady, incompressible and non viscous flow

The Bernoulli’s equation applications in practical designs to estimate pressure and
velocity in flow through ducts, venturimeter, orificemeter, pitot tube, etc.
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Example 4
Example 5
Example 6
Example 7
What do you understand by “Engineering”?
The atmospheric pressure (patm) may be defined as a normal pressure exerted by
atmospheric
air on all surfaces with which it is in contact
What do you understand by “Engineering”?