Chapter 1

Introduction to Databases
 Agenda

• Introduction to Database
• Manual Approach
• File-based Systems
• Database Approach
• History of Database
• Database Management Systems (DBMS)
 Database
• A computerized record keeping system,
• collection of self-describing and integrated
data files
• An organized collection of data that is
stored & accessed electronically
• is a collection of related data.
• Metadata:- data about data
• System catalog
– Meta data
– Data dictionary
– Overhead data
Contd…
Users of the database can perform a variety of
operations ,such as
•Adding new data to empty file
•Adding new data to existing file
•Retrieving data from existing file
•Deleting data from existing file
•Searching for target information
 Manual Approach
• In the manual approach, data storage
and retrieval follows the primitive and
traditional way of information handling
where cards and paper are used for the
purpose.
Manual based data organization
 Limitations of the Manual approach

• Prone to error
• Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
• You have the data but it is difficult to
compile the information
• Limited to small size information
• Cross referencing is difficult
 Traditional File Based Approach

• An alternative approach of data handling is

a computerized way of dealing with the
information.
• File based systems were an early attempt to
computerize the manual filing system.
• This approach is the decentralized
computerized data handling method.
Contd…
• Program defines and manages it’s own data
• Such systems have number of programs for
each of the different applications in the
organization.
• Since every application defines and
manages its own data, the system is
subjected to serious data duplication
problem.
Contd…
 Limitations of File-based

• Separation and isolation

• Duplication
• Program & data dependence
• Fixed queries
• Proliferation of application programs
Contd…
• The most significant problem experienced
by the traditional file based approach of
data handling is the “update anomalies”.
• We have three types of update anomalies;
1.Modification Anomalies: a problem
experienced when one or more data value is
modified on one application program but
not on others containing the same data set.
Cont…
• Deletion Anomalies: a problem
encountered where one record set is deleted
from one application but remain untouched
in other application programs.
• Insertion Anomalies: a problem
encountered where one cannot decide
whether the data to be inserted is valid and
consistent with other similar data set.
 Database Approach
• The database approach refers to a
systematic method of managing data using
a centralized database management system
(DBMS) rather than relying on individual
applications or file systems.
• database systems should present the user
with a view of data organized as tables
called relations. Thus in Database Approach:
Cont…
• Database is just a computerized record keeping
system or a kind of electronic filing cabinet.
• Database is a repository for collection of
computerized data files.
• Database is a shared collection of logically
related data designed to meet the information
needs of an organization. Since it is a shared
corporate resource, the database is integrated
with minimum amount of or no duplication.
Contd…
• Database is a collection of logically related
data where these logically related data
comprises entities, attributes, relationships,
and business rules of an organization's
information.
• In addition to containing data required by an
organization, database also contains a
description of the data which called as
“Metadata” or “Data Dictionary” or
“Systems Catalogue” or “Data about Data”.
Contd…
• Since a database contains information about
the data (metadata), it is called a self-
descriptive collection on integrated records.
• The purpose of a database is to store
information and to allow users to retrieve
and update that information on demand.
• Database is deigned once and used
simultaneously by many users.
Contd…
• Unlike the traditional file based approach in
database approach there is program data
independence. That is the separation of the
data definition from the application. Thus
the application is not affected by changes
made in the data structure and file
organization.
• Each database application will perform the
combination of: Creating database,
Reading, Updating and Deleting data.
 Benefits of the database approach
• Data can be shared: two or more users can
access and use same data instead of storing
data in redundant manner for each user.
• Improved accessibility of data: by using
structured query languages, the users can
easily access data without programming
experience.
• Redundancy can be reduced: isolated data
is integrated in database to decrease the
redundant data stored at different
applications.
Contd…
• Inconsistency can be avoided: controlled
data redundancy will avoid inconsistency of
the data in the database to some extent.
• Transaction support can be provided: basic
demands of any transaction support systems
are implanted in a full scale DBMS.
• Integrity can be maintained: data at
different applications will be integrated
together with additional constraints to
facilitate shared data resource.
Contd…
• Security majors can be enforced: the shared
data can be secured by having different levels
of clearance and other data security
mechanisms.
• Improved decision support: the database will
provide information useful for decision
making.
Contd…
• Compactness: since it is an electronic data
handling method, the data is stored
compactly (no voluminous papers).
• Standards can be enforced: the different
ways of using and dealing with data by
different unite of an organization can be
balanced and standardized by using
database approach. etc…
Contd…
Limitations and risk of Database Approach
Introduction of new professional and
specialized personnel.
Complexity in designing and managing data
The cost and risk during conversion from the
old to the new system
High cost incurred to develop and maintain
Complex backup and recovery services from
the users perspective
Reduced performance due to centralization
High impact on the system when failure occur
 Database Management System (DBMS)
• Database Management System (DBMS) is a
Software package used for providing
EFFICIENT, CONVENIENT and SAFE
MULTI-USER (many people/programs
accessing same database, or even same
data, simultaneously) storage of and access
to MASSIVE amounts of PERSISTENT
(data outlives programs that operate on it)
data.
 Contd…
• A DBMS also provides a systematic method
for creating, updating, storing, retrieving
data in a database.
• DBMS also provides the service of
controlling data access, enforcing data
integrity, managing concurrency control,
and recovery.
DBMS should at least have the following services
to provide to the user.(Advantages)
1. Data storage, retrieval and update in the
database
2. A user accessible catalogue
3. Transaction support service: ALL or
NONE transaction, which minimize data
inconsistency. (atomicity)
4. Concurrency Control Services: access and
update on the database by different users
simultaneously should be implemented
correctly.
Contd…
• Recovery Services: a mechanism for
recovering the database after a failure must
be available.
• Authorization Services (Security): must
support the implementation of access and
authorization service to database
administrator and users.
• Support for Data Communication: should
provide the facility to integrate with data
transfer software or data communication
managers.
Contd…
• Services to promote data independency
between the data and the application
• Utility services: sets of utility service
facilities like.
– Importing data:-Allows bulk data import from
spreadsheets.
– Statistical analysis support(e.g., sales trends).
– Index reorganization
– Garbage collection:Cleans up unused data to
optimize storage space.
 DBMS and Components of DBMS Environment
• Data definition language (DDL)
– Language used to define each data element
required by the organization.
– Commands for setting up schema of database
– Eg. (CREATE,ALTER,DROP)
• Data manipulation language (DML)
– Language used by end-users and programmers
to store, retrieve, and access the data e.g. SQL
– Also called "query language“
– Eg.SELECT,INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE
Contd…
• Data Dictionary: tool used to store and
organize information about the data
 DBMS Environment
• Hardware
– Client-server architecture
• Software
– dbms, os, network, application
• Data
– Schema, subschema, table, attribute
• People
– Data administrator & database administrator
– Database designer: logical & physical
– Application programmer
– End-user: naive & sophisticated
• Procedure
– Start, stop, log on, log off, back up, recovery
– this is the rules and regulations on how to design and use a
database.
 Database Development Life Cycle

1. Planning: that is identifying information gap

in an organization and propose a database
solution to solve the problem.
2. Analysis: that concentrates more on fact
finding about the problem or the opportunity.
Feasibility analysis, requirement
determination and structuring, and selection
of best design method are also performed at
this phase.
Contd…
3. Design: in database designing more
emphasis is given to this phase. The phase
is further divided into three sub-phases.
a) Conceptual Design: Describe data, types,
relationships, and constraints without
implementation details.
b) Logical Design: Select a specific data model,
independent of DBMS and physical
considerations.
Contd…
c. Physical Design: Implement the database
structure concerning internal storage and file
organization.
4. Implementation: the testing and
deployment of the designed database for use.
5. Operation and Support: administering
and maintaining the operation of the database
system and providing support to users.
 Roles in Database Design and Use
1. Database Administrator (DBA)
•Responsibilities:
– Oversee and manage database resources.
– Authorize database access.
– Monitor database usage.
– Acquire hardware and software resources.
– Address security and performance issues.
– Involved in all database development stages.
Contd…
Sub-roles:
•Data Administrator (DA): Manages data
resources, oversees planning and standards.
•Database Administrator (DBA): Focuses
on the technical implementation and security.
2. Database Designer (DBD)
•Responsibilities:
– Identify data to be stored and choose structures for
representation.
– Understand user requirements to design user views.
– Participate in the design phase before implementation.
•Sub-roles:
– Logical and Conceptual DBD: Identifies entities,
attributes, relationships, and constraints; understands
business rules.
– Physical DBD: Maps logical design to physical
implementation, selects storage structures, and designs
security measures.
Contd…
3. Application Programmer and Systems
Analyst
•Responsibilities:
– Systems Analyst: Determines user
requirements and database views.
– Application Programmer: Implements
specifications through coding, testing, and
maintaining applications. Defines how to
interact with the database.
Contd…
4.End Users
•Types:
– Naive Users: Unfamiliar with DBMS; use
standard queries based on access level.
– Sophisticated Users: Familiar with database
structure; have complex queries (e.g.,
engineers, analysts).
– Casual Users: Access databases occasionally;
seek different information each time.
 Contd…
Group Classifications
•Actors on the Scene: DBAs, DB Designers,
and End Users.
•Workers Behind the Scene:
– DBMS Designers: Develop DBMS software.
– Tool Developers: Create software for database
design and use.
– Operators and Maintenance Personnel:
Manage the hardware and software systems.
 Summary
• Data are raw facts
• Information is the result of processing data to
reveal its meaning
• Accurate, relevant, and timely information is
the key to good decision making
• Data are usually stored in a database
• DBMS implements a database and manages
its contents
Database Systems, 9th Edition 44
 Summary (cont'd.)
• Metadata is data about data
• Database design defines the database structure
– Well-designed database facilitates data
management and generates valuable information
– Poorly designed database leads to bad decision
making and organizational failure
• Databases evolved from manual and
computerized file systems
Database Systems, 9th Edition 45
 Summary (cont'd.)
• In a file system, data stored in independent files
– Each requires its own management program
• Some limitations of file system data management:
– Requires extensive programming
– System administration is complex and difficult
– Changing existing structures is difficult
– Security features are likely inadequate
– Independent files tend to contain redundant data
• Structural and data dependency problems

Database Systems, 9th Edition 46

 Summary (cont'd.)
• Database management systems were developed
to address file system’s inherent weaknesses
• DBMS present database to end user as single
repository
– Promotes data sharing
– Eliminates islands of information
• DBMS enforces data integrity, eliminates
redundancy, and promotes security
Database Systems, 9th Edition 47
 END

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