Chapter 1

Introduction to Database Systems

 Outline
• Basic Definitions
• Data Handling Approaches
• Database Management System (DBMS)
• Example of a Database (UNIVERSITY)
• Advantages of Using DBMS
• When Not to Use Databases
• Types of Database Users
• Impact of Databases and Database Technology
• Historical Development of Database Technology
• Review Questions
Basic Definitions
• Database:
– A collection of related data managed by DBMS.
• Data:
– Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning.
• Mini-world:
– Some part of the real world about which data is stored in a database. For example,
student grades and transcripts at a university.
• Database Management System (DBMS):
– A software package/system to facilitate the creation and maintenance of a
computerized database.
• Database System:
– The DBMS software together with the data itself. Sometimes, the applications are also
included.
Data Handling Approaches
• Data management passes through the different levels of development along with the
development in technology and services.
• These levels could best be described by categorizing the levels into three levels of
development.
• Even though there is an advantage and a problem to overcome at each new level, all
methods of data handling are in use to some extent. The major three levels are:
1. Manual Approach
2. Traditional File Based Approach

3. Database Approach
1. Manual Approach

• The data storage and retrieval follows the primitive and traditional way of information
handling where cards and paper are used for the purpose.

• Files for as many event and objects as the organization has are used to store information.

• Each of the files containing various kinds of information is labelled and stored in one or
more cabinets.

• The cabinets could be kept in safe places for security purpose based on the sensitivity of
the information contained in it.
Cont’d…

• Insertion and retrieval is done by searching first for the right cabinet then for the right
the file then the information.
• One could have an indexing system to facilitate access to the data.

Limitations of the Manual Approach:

– Prone to error.
– Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate.
– You have the data but it is difficult to compile the information.
– Limited to small size information.

– Cross referencing is difficult.

2. Traditional File Based Approach

• Is an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system.

• It is the decentralized computerized data handling method.

• A collection of application programs perform services for the end-users.

• In such systems, every application program that provides service to end users define and
manage its own
• Since every application defines and manages its own data, the system is subjected to
serious data duplication problem.
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
• Limitations of the Traditional File Based Approach:

– Separation or Isolation of data: Available information in one application may not be known.

– Limited data sharing.

– Lengthy development and maintenance time.

– Duplication or redundancy of data.

– Data dependency on the application.

– Incompatible file formats between different applications and programs creating

inconsistency.
– Fixed query processing which is defined during application development.
Cont’d…

The limitations for the traditional file based data handling approach arise from two basic
reasons:
1. Definition of the data is embedded in the application program which makes it difficult
to modify the database definition easily.

2. No control over the access and manipulation of the data beyond that imposed by the
application programs.
3. Database Approach

• It is a computerized record keeping system or a kind of electronic filing

cabinet.
• It is a repository for collection of computerized data files.
• It is a shared collection of logically related data designed to meet the
information needs of an organization.
• It also contains a description of the data which called as “Metadata” or
“Data Dictionary” or “Systems Catalogue” or “Data about Data”.
• Designed once and used simultaneously by many users.
Cont’d

• It is a collection of logically related data where these logically related data

comprises entities, attributes, relationships, and business rules of an
organization's information.
• The purpose of a database is to store information and to allow users to retrieve and
update that information on demand.
• Unlike the traditional file based approach in database approach there is program
data independence.
• Each database application will perform the combination of: Creating database,
Reading, Updating and Deleting data.
Cont’d

Benefits of the Database Approach:

• Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use same data instead of storing
data in redundant manner for each user.
• Improved accessibility of data: by using structured query languages, the users can easily
access data without programming experience.
• Redundancy can be reduced: isolated data is integrated in database to decrease the
redundant data stored at different applications.
Cont’d

• Quality data can be maintained: the different integrity constraints in the database
approach will maintain the quality leading to better decision making.
• Transaction support can be provided: basic demands of any transaction support systems
are implanted in a full scale DBMS.
• Integrity can be maintained: data at different applications will be integrated together
with additional constraints to facilitate shared data resource.
• Security majors can be enforced: the shared data can be secured by having different
levels of clearance and other data security mechanisms.
Cont’d
• Improved decision support: the database will provide information useful for decision
making.
• Standards can be enforced: the different ways of using and dealing with data by different
unit of an organization can be balanced and standardized by using database approach.
• Compactness: the data is stored compactly (no voluminous papers).

• Speed: data storage and retrieval is fast as it will be using the modern fast computer
systems.
• Centralized information control: the relevant data can be controlled and managed at the
central level.
Cont’d
Limitations and risk of Database Approach
– Introduction of new professional and specialized personnel.
– Complexity in designing and managing data.

– The cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new system.
– High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the system
– Complex backup and recovery services from the users perspective.
– Reduced performance due to centralization and high impact on the system when
failure occurs the central system.
Database Management System (DBMS)

is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining, constructing,

manipulating, and sharing databases among various users and applications.
• Defining a database involves specifying the data types, structures, and constraints of the
data to be stored in the database. The database definition or descriptive information is also
stored by the DBMS in the form of a database catalogue or dictionary; it is called meta-
data.
• Constructing the database is the process of storing the data on some storage medium that
is controlled by the DBMS.
Cont’d
• Manipulating a database includes functions such as:

– Querying the database to retrieve specific data.

– Updating the database to reflect changes in the miniworld.

– Generating reports from the data.

• Sharing a database allows multiple users and programs to access the database simultaneously.

• An application program accesses the database by sending queries or requests for data to the
DBMS.
• A query typically causes some data to be retrieved; a transaction may cause some data to be
read and some data to be written into the database.
Cont’d

• DBMS may additionally provide functions such as:

– Protection or Security measures to prevent hardware or software malfunction and
unauthorized or malicious access.
– Maintenance of the database and associated programs over the lifetime of the
database application.
Simplified Database System Environment
Example of a Database (with a Conceptual Data Model)

• Mini-world for the example:

– Part of a UNIVERSITY environment

• Some mini-world entities:

– STUDENTs
– COURSEs
– SECTIONs (of COURSEs)
– (Academic) DEPARTMENTs

– INSTRUCTORs
Example of a Database (with a Conceptual Data Model)

• Some mini-world relationships:

– SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs

– STUDENTs take SECTIONs

– COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs
– INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs
– COURSEs are offered by DEPARTMENTs
– STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs
Example of a Simple Database
Advantages of Using DBMS

• Controlling redundancy in data storage and in development and maintenance efforts.

– Sharing of data among multiple users.

• Restricting unauthorized access to data. Only the DBA staff uses privileged commands
and facilities.
• Providing persistent storage for program Objects
– E.g., Object-oriented DBMSs make program objects persistent.
• Providing storage structures (e.g. indexes) for efficient query processing.
Cont’d

• Providing optimization of queries for efficient processing.

• Providing backup and recovery services.

• Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of users.

• Representing complex relationships among data.
• Enforcing integrity constraints on the database.
• Drawing inferences and actions from the stored data using deductive and active rules and
triggers.
When not to use a DBMS

• Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:

– High initial investment and possible need for additional hardware.

– Overhead for providing generality, security, concurrency control, recovery, and

integrity functions.
• When a DBMS may be unnecessary:
– If the database and applications are simple, well defined, and not expected to change.
– If access to data by multiple users is not required.
• When a DBMS may be infeasible

– In embedded systems where a general purpose DBMS may not fit in available storage.
Cont’d

• When no DBMS may suffice:

– If there are stringent real-time requirements that may not be met because of DBMS
overhead (e.g., telephone switching systems).
– If the database system is not able to handle the complexity of data because of
modelling limitations (e.g., in complex genome and protein databases).
– If the database users need special operations not supported by the DBMS (e.g., GIS
and location based services).
Types Database Users

• Users may be divided into

– Those who actually use and control the database content, and those who design,
develop and maintain database applications (called “Actors on the Scene”), and
– Those who design and develop the DBMS software and related tools, and the
computer systems operators (called “Workers Behind the Scene”).
Cont’d

I. Actors on the scene

1. Database administrators:
• Responsible for authorizing access to the database, for coordinating and monitoring
its use, acquiring software and hardware resources, controlling its use and
monitoring efficiency of operations.
2. Database designers:
• Responsible to define the content, the structure, the constraints, and functions or
transactions against the database.
• They must communicate with the end-users and understand their needs.
Cont’d
3. End-users: They use the data for queries, reports and some of them update the database
content. End-users can be categorized into:

A. Casual: access database occasionally when needed.

B. Naïve or Parametric: they make up a large section of the end-user population. They use
previously well-defined functions in the form of “canned transactions” against the database.
• Users of Mobile Apps: mostly fall in this category

• Bank-tellers or reservation clerks: are parametric users who do this activity for an entire
shift of operations.
• Social Media Users: post and read information from websites
Cont’d
C. Sophisticated:
• These include business analysts, scientists, engineers, others thoroughly familiar
with the system capabilities.
• Many use tools in the form of software packages that work closely with the stored
database.

D. Stand-alone:
• Mostly maintain personal databases using ready-to-use packaged applications.
• An example is the user of a tax program that creates its own internal database.
• Another example is a user that maintains a database of personal photos and videos.
Cont’d…

4. System Analysts and Application Developers

This category currently accounts for a very large proportion of the IT work force.
– System Analysts: They understand the user requirements of naïve and sophisticated
users and design applications including canned transactions to meet those requirements.
– Application Programmers: Implement the specifications developed by analysts and test
and debug them before deployment.
– Business Analysts: There is an increasing need for such people who can analyze vast
amounts of business data and real-time data (“Big Data”) for better decision making
related to planning, advertising, marketing etc.
II. Workers Behind the Scene

1. System Designers and Implementors: Design and implement DBMS packages in the
form of modules and interfaces and test and debug them. The DBMS must interface with
applications, language compilers, operating system components, etc.
2. Tool Developers: Design and implement software systems called tools for modelling and
designing databases, performance monitoring, prototyping, test data generation, user
interface creation, simulation etc. that facilitate building of applications and allow using
database effectively.

3. Operators and Maintenance Personnel: They manage the actual running and
maintenance of the database system hardware and software environment.
Impact of Databases and Database Technology

• Businesses: Banking, Insurance, Retail, Transportation, Healthcare, Manufacturing

• Service industries: Financial, Real-estate, Legal, Electronic Commerce, Small businesses

• Education : Resources for content and Delivery

• More recently: Social Networks, Environmental and Scientific Applications, Medicine
and Genetics
• Personalized applications: based on smart mobile devices
Historical Development of Database Technology

• Early database applications:

– The Hierarchical and Network Models were introduced in mid 1960s and dominated
during the seventies.
– A bulk of the worldwide database processing still occurs using these models,
particularly, the hierarchical model using IBM’s IMS system.
• Relational model based systems:
– Relational model was originally introduced in 1970, was heavily researched and
experimented within IBM Research and several universities.
– Relational DBMS Products emerged in the early 1980s.
Cont’d…

• Object-oriented and emerging applications:

– Object-Oriented Database Management Systems (OODBMSs) were introduced in late
1980s and early 1990s to cater to the need of complex data processing in CAD and
other applications.
• Their use has not taken off much
– Many relational DBMSs have incorporated object database concepts, leading to a new
category called object-relational DBMSs (ORDBMSs)
– Extended relational systems add further capabilities (e.g. for multimedia data, text,
XML, and other data types)
Cont’d…

• Data on the Web and E-commerce Applications:

– Web contains data in HTML (Hypertext markup language) with links among pages.

– This has given rise to a new set of applications and E-commerce is using new
standards like XML (eXtended Markup Language)
– Script programming languages such as PHP and JavaScript allow generation of
dynamic Web pages that are partially generated from a database.
• Also allow database updates through Web pages
Review Questions

• 1.1. Define the following terms: data, database, DBMS, database system, database
catalog, program-data independence, user view, DBA, end user, canned transaction,
deductive database system, persistent object, meta-data, and transaction-processing
application.
• 1.2. What four main types of actions involve databases? Briefly discuss each.

• 1.3. Discuss the main characteristics of the database approach and how it differs from
traditional file systems.
• 1.4. What are the responsibilities of the DBA and the database designers?
Cont’d…

• 1.5. What are the different types of database end users? Discuss the main activities of
each.
• 1.6. Discuss the capabilities that should be provided by a DBMS.

• 1.7. Discuss the differences between database systems and information retrieval
• 1.8. What is the difference between controlled and uncontrolled redundancy? Illustrate
with examples.