STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF

SKIN

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 What is the skin?
• The skin is the body’s largest organ, made of water, protein, fats and minerals.

• Skin protects your body from germs and regulates body temperature. Nerves in the skin help you
feel sensations like hot and cold.

• The skin is composed of two major layers: a superficial epidermis and a deeper dermis.

• The epidermis consists of several layers-The topmost layer consists of dead cells that shed periodically
and are progressively replaced by cells formed from the basal layer.

• The dermis connects the epidermis to the hypodermis, and provides strength and elasticity due to the
presence of collagen and elastin fibers.

• The hypodermis, deep to the dermis of skin, is the connective tissue that connects the dermis to
underlying structures; it also harbors adipose tissue for fat storage and protection.
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Structure of skin

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 EPIDERMIS
• The epidermis is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. It is
made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body.

• It does not have any blood vessels within it (i.e., it is avascular).

• Skin that has four layers of cells is referred to as “thin skin.” From deep to
superficial, these layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum,
and stratum corneum. Most of the skin can be classified as thin skin.

• “Thick skin” is found only on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. It has a
fifth layer, called the stratum lucidum, located between the stratum corneum and the
stratum granulosum.
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Epidermis layers

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• The cells in all of the layers except the stratum basale are called keratinocytes.
A keratinocyte is a cell that manufactures and stores the protein keratin.

• Keratin is an intracellular fibrous protein that gives hair, nails, and skin their
hardness and water-resistant properties.

• The keratinocytes in the stratum corneum are dead and regularly slough away,
being replaced by cells from the deeper layers

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 Stratum Corneum

• The stratum corneum is the most superficial layer of the epidermis and is the layer exposed to the
outside environment. The increased keratinization (also called cornification) of the cells in this layer
gives it its name. There are usually 15 to 30 layers of cells in the stratum corneum. This dry, dead
layer helps prevent the penetration of microbes and the dehydration of underlying tissues and
provides mechanical protection against abrasion for the more delicate, underlying layers.

• Cells in this layer are shed periodically and are replaced by cells pushed up from the stratum
granulosum (or stratum lucidum in the case of the palms and soles of feet).

• The entire layer is replaced during a period of about 4 weeks.

• Cosmetic procedures, such as microdermabrasion, help remove some of the dry, upper layer and aim
to keep the skin looking “fresh” and healthy.
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 Stratum Lucidum
• The stratum lucidum is a smooth, seemingly translucent layer of the epidermis
located just above the stratum granulosum and below the stratum corneum. This thin
layer of cells is found only in the thick skin of the palms, soles, and digits. The
keratinocytes that compose the stratum lucidum are dead and flattened.

• These cells are densely packed with eleiden, a clear protein rich in lipids, derived
from keratohyalin, which gives these cells their transparent (i.e., lucid) appearance
and provides a barrier to water.

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 Stratum Granulosum

• The stratum granulosum has a grainy appearance due to further changes to the
keratinocytes as they are pushed from the stratum spinosum. The cells (three to five
layers deep) become flatter, their cell membranes thicken, and they generate large
amounts of the proteins keratin, which is fibrous, and keratohyalin, which
accumulates as lamellar granules within the cells.

• These two proteins make up the bulk of the keratinocyte mass in the stratum granulosum
and give the layer its grainy appearance. The nuclei and other cell organelles disintegrate
as the cells die, leaving behind the keratin, keratohyalin, and cell membranes that will
form the stratum lucidum, the stratum corneum, and the accessory structures of hair and
nails.
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 Stratum Spinosum
• As the name suggests, the stratum spinosum is spiny in appearance due to the protruding cell
processes that join the cells via a structure called a desmosome. The desmosomes interlock
with each other and strengthen the bond between the cells. It is interesting to note that the
“spiny” nature of this layer is an artifact of the staining process.

• Unstained epidermis samples do not exhibit this characteristic appearance. The stratum
spinosum comprises eight to 10 layers of keratinocytes, formed due to cell division in the
stratum basale.

• Interspersed among the keratinocytes of this layer is a type of dendritic cell called
the Langerhans cell, which functions as a macrophage by engulfing bacteria, foreign
particles, and damaged cells that occur in this layer.
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• The keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum begin the synthesis of keratin and
release a water-repelling glycolipid that helps prevent water loss from the body,
making the skin relatively waterproof.

• As new keratinocytes are produced atop the stratum basale, the keratinocytes of
the stratum spinosum are pushed into the stratum granulosum.

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 Stratum Basale
• The stratum basale (also called the stratum germinativum) is the deepest epidermal
layer and attaches the epidermis to the basal lamina, below which lie the layers of the
dermis. The cells in the stratum basale bond to the dermis via intertwining collagen
fibers, referred to as the basement membrane.

• A finger-like projection, or fold, known as the dermal papilla (plural = dermal

papillae) is found in the superficial portion of the dermis. Dermal papillae increase
the strength of the connection between the epidermis and dermis; the greater the
folding, the stronger the connections made

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• The stratum basale is a single layer of cells primarily made of basal cells. A basal cell is a cuboidal-
shaped stem cell that is a precursor of the keratinocytes of the epidermis. All of the keratinocytes
are produced from this single layer of cells, which are constantly going through mitosis to produce
new cells. As new cells are formed, the existing cells are pushed superficially away from the stratum
basale.

• Two other cell types are found dispersed among the basal cells in the stratum basale. The first is
a Merkel cell, which functions as a receptor and is responsible for stimulating sensory nerves that
the brain perceives as touch. These cells are especially abundant on the surfaces of the hands and
feet.

• The second is a melanocyte, a cell that produces the pigment melanin. Melanin gives hair and skin
its color, and also helps protect the living cells of the epidermis from ultraviolet (UV) radiation
damage.
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 DERMIS
• The dermis might be considered the “core” of the
integumentary system (derma- = “skin”), as distinct from
the epidermis (epi– = “upon” or “over”) and hypodermis
(hypo– = “below”).

• It contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other

structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands.

• The dermis is made of two layers of connective tissue

that compose an interconnected mesh of elastin and
collagenous fibers, produced by fibroblasts
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• The dermis contains nerve endings, sweat glands and oil glands (sebaceous glands), hair
follicles, and blood vessels.

• The nerve endings sense pain, touch, pressure, and temperature. Some areas of the skin contain
more nerve endings than others. For example, the fingertips and toes contain many nerves and
are extremely sensitive to touch.

• The sweat glands produce sweat in response to heat and stress. Sweat is composed of water,
salt, and other chemicals. As sweat evaporates off the skin, it helps cool the body. Specialized
sweat glands in the armpits and the genital region (apocrine sweat glands) secrete a thick, oily
sweat that produces a characteristic body odor when the sweat is digested by the skin bacteria
in those areas.
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• The sebaceous glands secrete sebum into hair follicles. Sebum is an oil that keeps the skin
moist and soft and acts as a barrier against foreign substances.

• The hair follicles produce the various types of hair found throughout the body. Hair not only
contributes to a person's appearance but has a number of important physical roles, including
regulating body temperature, providing protection from injury, and enhancing sensation. A
portion of the follicle also contains stem cells capable of regrowing damaged epidermis.

• The blood vessels of the dermis provide nutrients to the skin and help regulate body
temperature. Heat makes the blood vessels enlarge (dilate), allowing large amounts of blood
to circulate near the skin surface, where the heat can be released. Cold makes the blood
vessels narrow (constrict), retaining the body's heat.
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 Papillary Layer
• The papillary layer is made of loose, areolar connective tissue, which means the collagen
and elastin fibers of this layer form a loose mesh. This superficial layer of the dermis
projects into the stratum basale of the epidermis to form finger-like dermal papillae.

• Within the papillary layer are fibroblasts, a small number of fat cells (adipocytes), and an
abundance of small blood vessels.

• In addition, the papillary layer contains phagocytes, defensive cells that help fight bacteria
or other infections that have breached the skin. This layer also contains lymphatic
capillaries, nerve fibers, and touch receptors called the Meissner corpuscles

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 Reticular Layer
• Underlying the papillary layer is the much thicker reticular layer, composed of dense,
irregular connective tissue. This layer is well vascularized and has a rich sensory and
sympathetic nerve supply. The reticular layer appears reticulated (net-like) due to a tight
meshwork of fibers.

• Elastin fibers provide some elasticity to the skin, enabling movement. Collagen fibers
provide structure and tensile strength, with strands of collagen extending into both the
papillary layer and the hypodermis.

• In addition, collagen binds water to keep the skin hydrated. Collagen injections and Retin-A
creams help restore skin turgor by either introducing collagen externally or stimulating
blood flow and repair of the dermis, respectively.
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 HYPODERMIS

• The hypodermis (also called the subcutaneous layer or superficial fascia) is a

layer directly below the dermis and serves to connect the skin to the underlying
fascia (fibrous tissue) of the bones and muscles. It is not strictly a part of the skin,
although the border between the hypodermis and dermis can be difficult to
distinguish.

• The hypodermis consists of well-vascularized, loose, areolar connective tissue

and adipose tissue, which functions as a mode of fat storage and provides
insulation and cushioning for the integument.

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 Lipid Storage
• The hypodermis is home to most of the fat that concerns people when they are trying to keep
their weight under control. Adipose tissue present in the hypodermis consists of fat-storing
cells called adipocytes. This stored fat can serve as an energy reserve, insulate the body to
prevent heat loss and act as a cushion to protect underlying structures from trauma.

• Where the fat is deposited and accumulates within the hypodermis depends on hormones
(testosterone, estrogen, insulin, glucagon, leptin, and others), as well as genetic factors.

• Fat distribution changes as our bodies mature and age. Men tend to accumulate fat in
different areas (neck, arms, lower back, and abdomen) than women (breasts, hips, thighs, and
buttocks).

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• The body mass index (BMI) is often used as a measure of fat, although this
measure is derived from a mathematical formula that compares body weight (mass)
to height. Therefore, its accuracy as a health indicator can be called into question in
individuals who are extremely physically fit.

• Changes in lifestyle, specifically in diet and exercise, are the best ways to control
body fat accumulation, especially when it reaches levels that increase the risk of
heart disease and diabetes.

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 Pigmentation

• The color of skin is influenced by several pigments, including melanin, carotene, and
hemoglobin.

• Melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes, which are found scattered throughout the
stratum basale of the epidermis.

• The melanin is transferred into the keratinocytes via a cellular vesicle called
a melanosome

• Melanin occurs in two primary forms. Eumelanin, the most common form of melanin,
exists as black and brown, whereas pheomelanin provides a red color. Dark-skinned
individuals produce more melanin than those with pale skin.
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The relative coloration of the skin depends of the amount of melanin
produced by melanocytes in the stratum basale and taken up by
keratinocytes.
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• Exposure to the UV rays of the sun or a tanning salon causes melanin to be manufactured and
built up in keratinocytes, as sun exposure stimulates keratinocytes to secrete chemicals that
stimulate melanocytes.

• The accumulation of melanin in keratinocytes results in the darkening of the skin, or a tan.

• This increased melanin accumulation protects the DNA of epidermal cells from UV ray
damage and the breakdown of folic acid, a nutrient necessary for our health and well-being.

• In contrast, too much melanin can interfere with the production of vitamin D, an important
nutrient involved in calcium absorption.

• Thus, the amount of melanin present in our skin is dependent on a balance between available
sunlight and folic acid destruction, and protection from UV radiation and vitamin D production.

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 SKIN FUNCTIONS
Cold, heat, water loss and radiation
• As the outermost layer of the skin, the horny layer plays a pivotal role in protecting the body
from the environment and limiting the amount of water lost from the epidermis.
• It contains natural moisturizing factors (NMFs) – derived from sebaceous oils of the horny
layer including lactic acid and urea. These bind with water and help to maintain the skin’s
elasticity, firmness, and suppleness. If these factors are depleted, the skin loses moisture.
When moisture of the horny layer falls below 8 to 10%, it becomes rough, dry and prone to
cracking.
• When the skin is regularly exposed to UV rays, melanin production in the basal layer
increases, the skin thickens to protect itself and hyperpigmentation can occur. The fat cells in
the subcutis also insulate the body from cold and heat.
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Pressure, blows and abrasion

• Again, the epidermis forms the first layer of defense. The fat cells in the subcutis
provide padding that acts as a shock absorber, protecting the muscle tissue and
fascia (the fibrous tissue that surrounds muscles) beneath.

• When skin is exposed to certain external stimuli the horny layer thickens, for
example when calluses form on hands or feet that are exposed to repeated rubbing

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Temperature regulation

• Skin perspires to cool the body and contracts the vascular

system in the dermis to conserve heat.

Control of sensation

• Nerve endings in the skin make it sensitive to pressure,

vibration, touch, pain, and temperature.

Regeneration

• Skin is able to repair wounds.

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Food source

• The fat cells in the subcutis serve as important storage units for
nutrients. When the body needs them, they pass into the surrounding
blood vessels and are carried to where they are required.

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 Other Functions

• Reduces harmful effects of UV radiation.

• An immune organ to detect infections etc.

• Production of vitamin D.

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THANK YOU

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