The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, oil and sweat glands, nails and sensory receptors. STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN • Skin also termed as cutaneous membrane or integument is the protective outer covering of the human body. • It is the largest organ with a surface area of about 1.5-2.0 m² and its weight ranges from 4.5-5.0 kg. • Together with its accessory structures (hair and nails), various muscles, glands and nerves, it makes up the integumentary system
➢ Skin consists of two main parts
• Epidermis • Dermis EPIDERMIS ➢ Composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium ➢ Contain four principle types of cells. 1. Keratinocytes 2. Melanocytes 3. Langerhans cells. 4. Merkel Cells
Keratinocytes • 90% of epidermal cells • Produce the protein Keratin Functions • Keratin helps to protect the skin and underlying tissues from abrasions, heat, microbes and chemicals. • Keratinocytes also produce lamellar granules, which release a water- repellent Sealant that decreases water entry and loss and inhibits the entry of foreign materials
Melanocytes • Developed from the ectoderm of a developing embryo and produce the pigment melanin. Functions • Melanin is a yellow-red or brown black pigment that contributes to skin colour • Absorbs damaging ultraviolet (UV) light. • They shield the nuclear DNA from damage by UV light
Langerhans cells • Intraepidermal macrophages or langerhans cells arise from red bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis
Functions • They participate in immune responses mounted against microbes that invade the skin, and are easily damaged by UV light • Help other cells of the immune system to recognize an invading microbe and destroy it
Tactile epithelial cells or Merkel cells
• They constitute the least fraction of epidermal cells. • They are found in the deepest layer of epidermis. Functions • They detect touch sensations as they maintain contact with a component of sensory neuron termed as Merkel disc or tactile disc
Layers (Strata) of Epidermis
• Epidermis contains five layers. However in major body regions, it consists of only 4 layers i.e., it does not contain stratum lucidum. Such epidermis is known as thin skin. • In body parts such as the palms, soles and finger tips which experience greater friction, the epidermis is made up of five layers. This portion of epidermis is known thick skin
• It is the thick outermost layer of the epidermis. It is made up of 20-30 layers of dead, flat keratinocytes • Plasma membrane enclosed packages of keratin that no longer contain a nucleus or any internal organelles • The cells within each layer overlap one another like the scales on the skin of a snake. • The cells of the stratum corneum contain lipids produced by lamellar granules.
Functions
This layer provides strength and elasticity to the skin.
The lipids impart water-repellant property
Since it is made up of dead cells, it protects the deeper layers from microbes and injury.
Stratum Lucidum • The stratum lucidum present only in the thick skin of areas such as the fingertips, palms, and soles. • It consists of four to six layers of flattened clear, dead keratinocytes that contain large amounts of keratin and thickened plasma membranes. Functions • Provides an additional level of toughness in this region of thick skin.
Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer)
• It is a thin middle layer composed of 3-5 layers of flat keratinocytes that are undergoing apoptosis i.e., programmed cell death. • This layer is characterized by the presence of dark-staining protein granules called keratohyalin that converts (keratin intermediate filaments) into keratin. • Also present in the keratinocytes are membrane-enclosed lamellar granules , which release a lipid- rich secretion. This secretion is deposited in the spaces between cells of the stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum Functions • The lipids prevent the entry and exit of water from the skin • The layer prevent the entry of foreign materials
Stratum Spinosum • It contains 8-10 layers of polygonal keratinocytes tightly linked together by desmosomes. • Stratum spinosum also contains melanocyte projections and Langerhans cells • Intraepidermal macrophages and projections of melanocytes are also present in the stratum spinosum. Function • This layer provides strength and support to the skin
Stratum Basale • The deepest layer of the epidermis is the stratum basale composed of a single row of cuboidal keratinocytes. • Some cells in this layer are stem cells that undergo cell division to continually produce new keratinocytes. • The nuclei of keratinocytes in the stratum basale are large, and their cytoplasm contains many ribosomes, a small Golgi complex, a few mitochondria, and some rough endoplasmic reticulum. • The cytoskeleton within keratinocytes of the stratum basale includes scattered intermediate filaments, called keratin intermediate filaments. • Desmosomes - Such attachment helps to bind the cells of stratum basale with each other and also with the above epidermal layer. • Hemidesmosomes - Such attachment helps the keratinocytes to bind with the dermis basement membrane • Keratin protects the deeper layers from injury.
• Melanocytes and tactile epithelial cells with their associated tactile discs are scattered among the keratinocytes of the basal layer.
• The stratum basale is also known as the stratum germinativum to indicate its role in forming new cells.
DERMIS •Second deeper pat of the skin •Composed of dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers •Dermis also has the ability to stretch and recoil easily •Blood vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles (epithelial invaginations of the epidermis) are embedded in the dermal layer Dermis contain 1. Thin superficial papillary region 2. Thick deeper reticular region Papillary region • 1/5th of the thickness of the total layer • Contain thin collagen and fine elastic fibers • Its surface area is increased by dermal papillae • All dermal papillae contain capillary loops (blood vessel) • Some contain touch receptors called corpuscles of touch that are sensitive to touch Reticular region • Subcutaneous layer • Contains bundles of thick collagen fibers, scattered fibroblasts and various wandering cells • Collagen fibers in the reticular region are arranged in a network manner, and have more regular arrangements. Blood vessels, nerves,hair follicles, sebaceous (oil) glands, and sudoriferous (sweat)glands occupy the spaces between fibers. • The surface of the palms, fingers,toes have a series of ridges and grooves. These are epidermal ridges • The combination of collagen and elastic fibers in the reticular region provides the skin with strength, extensibility , the ability to stretch, and elasticity
➢ Beneath the dermis, there is a layer of subcutaneous tissue containing network of fat cells (adipocytes) and collagen fibers called as hypodermis. It is not a part of the skin. It insulates the body from heat and cold and also protects the organ from injuries by acting as a shock absorber. It acts as a storage site for fats and since it contains large blood vessels, nourishes the skin.
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN
Hair, skin glands, and nails develop from the embryonic epidermis. Nail • Nails are clear, solid parts that cover the dorsal surfaces of the distal portions of fingers and toes, and are made of tightly packed, hard, dead and keratinized epidermal cells. • Each nail is composed of a nail body (visible pink portion of the nail), a free edge (part extending beyond the end fingers and toes) and a nail root (portion that is present in a fold of skin and is not visible). • The nail body appears pink due to the presence of capillaries in the dermis beneath, with blood flowing in them, whereas the free edge is white due to the absence of any such capillaries • A white crescent-shaped region called lunula is present at the proximal end of the nail body. It appears white as the blood capillaries are not visible here due to the presence of a thick underlying epidermal layer. • A thick region of stratum corneum called hyponychium
Skin Glands • Human skin is supplied with millions of pores and associated exocrine glands. These glands include sudoriferous (sweat) glands and sebaceous (oil) glands. • These glands are made up of epithelial cells that secrete certain important substances which play a vital role in the functioning of the skin. • Sweat Glands
• Sweat glands are widely distributed
• These glands release sweat (perspiration) onto the skin surface by means of pores. • Sweat glands are numerous in palms, soles, axillae (armpits) and groins (junction between abdomen and thighs) and are absent on the margins of the lips, nail beds, tip of penis and ear drum. • The primary function of sweat glands is to regulate body temperature. • Depending upon the structure, type of secretion and function, sweat glands are mainly of two types, th ▪ Eccrine sweat glands that release sweat onto the skin ▪ Apocrine sweat glands that release sweat through hair follicles.
Sebaceous Glands ▪ Sebaceous glands, also known as the oil glands secrete an oily substance known as sebum. ▪ These are situated in the fibrous tissues of the skin. ▪ They are present throughout the body but are absent in palms and soles. ▪ They are of larger size and abundant in the scalp, face neck and breast ▪ Sebaceous glands secrete sebum which contains proteins, esters, triglycerides, cholesterol and inorganic salts.
Functions • These glands protect the skin from fungal and bacterial infections. Blockage of these glands may lead to skin disorders like acne. • The sebum produced by these glands keeps the skin surface moist, hence protects it from drying and cracking. • It also protects the hair from drying and breaking as the sebum imparts shine and softness to them.
Hair • Hair or pili are found on the epidermal layer of the skin, especially in scalp, eyebrows, armpits and around external genital organs. Functions of Hair • Hair on the scalp protects it from injury and harmful rays of the sun as well as prevents the heat loss from the scalp. • The eyebrows and eyelashes prevent the entry of any foreign particles in the eye. • The nasal hair and those present in the ear also provide protection to the associated organs. • The hair follicles are associated with hair root receptors, which basically are touch receptors. These help in the sensation of touch FUNCTIONS OF SKIN Thermoregulation • Thermoregulation is defined as the homeostatic regulation of the body temperature • Skin contributes to thermoregulation by maintaining a balance between heat production and heat loss. • Thermoregulation done by two ways a) Stimulation of Sweat Glands • In response to high heat production in the body and high environmental temperature, skin stimulates sweat production from exocrine sweat glands. • Sweat is then brought to the body surface by ducts which upon evaporation lowers the body temperature. Similarly, in response to low heat production and low environmental temperature, skin decreases the sweat production b) Vasodilation and Vasoconstriction • Blood vessel in the dermis of the skin dilate which increases the amount of heat loss from the body • Blood vessels in the dermis of the skin constrict, which decreases blood flow through the skin and reduces heat loss from the body Protection There are several mechanisms through which skin offers protection. a) It acts as a water proof layer owing to the presence of keratinized epithelial cells and protects the underlying structures from chemicals, physical agents like UV rays, dehydration and against invasion of microbes. b) Lamellar granules produce lipids which inhibit evaporation of water from the skin surface, they also retard entry of water across the skin surface. c) Sebaceous glands produce sebum which helps to retain the moisture content of the skin. d) The acidic pH of the sweat shows bacteriostatic activity and retards the growth of microorganisms. e) Melanin protects the skin from harmful UV rays. f) Langerhans cells present in the epidermis engulf the intruding microbes and alert the immune system regarding the presence of intruders. g) Macrophages present in the dermis of the skin engulf the bacteria and viruses which bypass the Langerhans cells
Cutaneous Sensation • Cutaneous sensations refer to sensations of the skin such as tactile sensations i.e. touch, pressure, tickling and vibration along with thermal sensations such as warmth, coolness etc. • Sensory receptors such as tactile discs in epidermis, corpuscles of touch in dermis, hair root plexuses in hair follicles etc., are widely distributed in the skin which carry nerve Impulses to the cerebral cortex Excretion and Absorption • Skin is a minor excretory organ. It evaporates about 400 ml of water per day. • It also excretes small amounts of salts (sodium chloride), carbon dioxide and organic molecules like urea and ammonia • Absorbs fat soluble vitamins, certain drugs, and the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide. • Absorbs toxic materials such as acetone, carbontetrachloride etc
Synthesis of Vitamin D • Skin when exposed to UV rays stimulates the production of calcitriol, the most active form of vitamin D. Calcitriol is essential for the absorption of calcium and phosphate from the food and also for the formation and maintenance of bones.
