IFY Chemistry

2024/10/16
Bonding Between
Atoms
Unit 4
 Why do atoms combine? P48
• The forces that hold these atoms together in compounds are called chemical bonds.
• In order to understand the nature of these bonds, perhaps we should first ask the question:
• Why do atoms bother to combine in the first place?
Diatomic Elements
• Diatomic elements are molecules made up of two atoms of the same element. There are 7
diatomic elements found in nature: Hydrogen (H₂), Nitrogen (N₂), Oxygen (O₂),
Fluorine (F₂), Chlorine (Cl₂), Bromine (Br₂), and Iodine (I₂).
• Formation & Stability: These elements are diatomic because their atoms are more stable
when paired together than alone. They share electrons through covalent bonds to achieve
a full outer shell, which makes them less reactive than individual atoms.
Lewis symbols ( 路易斯符號 )
• In 1916, Kossel and Lewis proposed that atoms of elements react with each other in order to achieve
the stable electron arrangements of the noble gases. In order to obtain these stable arrangements,
atoms may gain, lose or share electrons.
• These processes are generally represented by using Lewis symbols – an atom of an element is
represented by the symbol for that element and the electrons in the outer shell of the atom are shown
as dots, small circles or crosses. For example, the Lewis symbol for the sodium atom is

• The symbol for sodium is Na and the electronic structure of the sodium atom is 2.8.1, so there is one
electron in the last electron shell which we represent by one dot.
General ionic state of element
Mg2+
• Mg →
Na+
• Na →
Cl-
• Cl →
Al3+
• Al →
 Metal + Non-metal
Ionic bonding ( 離子鍵 ) P47

Ionic compounds are formed whenever one atom (or group of atoms) transfers electrons to
another.
Note that, when sodium and chlorine react, they both end up with the electron
configuration of a noble gas but they do not change into noble gases; they are still the
same elements.
• Example 4.1
Magnesium(Mg) reacts with fluorine to form magnesium fluoride(MgF 2).
Write an equation to describe the bonding using Lewis symbols
Reaction of potassium with chlorine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rRHZIir1Uno

• The equations using Lewis symbols provide us with more information than the usual
equations for chemical reactions.

• (i) Write an equation, using Lewis symbols, that shows the changes in electronic structure
that occur when potassium atoms react with chlorine atoms.

• (ii) Write the balanced equation for the reaction of potassium with chlorine gas (Cl2).
Writing equations for the formation of ionic
compounds using Lewis symbols
• (i) magnesium oxide (MgO) from Mg and O atoms

• (ii) calcium fluoride (CaF2) from Ca and F atoms

• (iii) aluminium chloride (AlCl3) from Al and Cl atoms

• (iv) lithium oxide (Li2O) from Li and O atoms

• (v) aluminium oxide (Al2O3) from Al and O atoms.

• (vi) sodium chloride (NaCl) from Na and Cl atoms

Arrangement of ions in sodium chloride P50
In a sodium chloride crystal, the Na+ and Cl- ions are arranged in a giant lattice
structure. The ‘building brick’ of this structure is a unit cell is as shown in Fig 4.2.
The larger spheres represent Cl ions, whereas the smaller spheres represent Na + ions.
A crystal of sodium chloride consists of many billions of these unit cells stacked
together in the lattice.
In the unit cell, each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions and each
chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. The ions are held together by the
attraction of their opposite charges (electrostatic forces).
These forces are very strong. X-ray diffraction allows us to ‘see’ ions in an ionic
compound, as described in Box 4.2.
All ionic substances consist of ions arranged in a giant lattice. Different ionic
structures have their ions arranged in different patterns. The sodium chloride
structure is one of the simplest arrangements.
Properties of ionic compounds

1. High melting and boiling points (they are non-volatile 非揮發性物質 )

2. Soluble in water
3. Conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution
4. Ionic crystals shatter easily
High melting and boiling points

• They are solids at room temperature. When a substance melts, then boils, its particles
separate. A great deal of energy is needed to break down the lattice structure because the
ions are attracted together by strong forces. The structure must therefore be heated to a
high temperature before it melts.
 Soluble in water
• Water contains molecules that have one end positively charged and the other end negatively
charged (the charge separation is called a dipole). When ionic compounds are put into water, the
water molecules are able to break down the crystal lattice by attracting the ions in the lattice and
pulling them into the solution.
• In this way, the lattice breaks up and the ions mix in with the water molecules – the substance
dissolves.
• Water is a polar solvent and tends to dissolve ionic compounds. The positive end of a water
molecule can attach itself to an anion in the unit cell and pull it away from the structure. Similarly,
the negative end of the water molecule can attract away a cation.
Conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous
solution
• In order for a substance to conduct electricity, it must possess charged particles that can
move (in a metal, mobile electrons can carry the electric current).
• Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity – the ions are held firmly by strong
electrostatic forces and cannot move. When the substance is melted or dissolved in water,
however, the ions move freely and can carry an electric current. An aqueous solution, or
melt, of an ionic substance that behaves in this way, is called an electrolyte( 電解質 ).
 Ionic crystals shatter easily
• When a force is applied to the crystal, the layers of ions in the crystal structure
can ‘slip’ so that similarly charged ions are next to one another. The like
charges of the ions repel one another and the crystal structure shatters.

-
+ + - -- --
+ +
--
+ +
+ +
 Non-metal + Non-metal
Covalent bonding ( 共價鍵 )
What type of bonding occurs if it takes too much energy to remove electrons from one of the
atoms taking part in bonding?

This situation occurs when two or more non-metals combine their atoms have to share electrons
to achieve the stable electronic configuration of a noble gas. This type of bonding is called
covalent bonding. Noble gases DO NOT form covalent bonds with other elements.

Consider chlorine gas; the Lewis symbol for chlorine is:

Covalent bonding
A molecule of chlorine is formed – there are no charged particles. The electrons of one chlorine
atom are usually represented by dots and those of the other by crosses, to enable you to see where
they come from. Remember, though, that once the electrons are involved in the covalent bond
there is no way to distinguish between them. Chlorine gas, therefore, chemical formula Cl2, exists
as a diatomic molecule because this allows its atoms to achieve the stable electronic arrangement of
a noble gas. The structural formula of the molecule is written as
Cl——Cl
where ‘——’ represents a pair of shared electrons, i.e. a covalent bond.
• Ammonia (NH3) is a covalent substance. Draw a Lewis structure to
represent the bonding in ammonia.
Writing Lewis structures
• Write Lewis structures for the following covalent molecules, then write their structural formulae using —— to
represent a shared pair of electrons:
• (i) H2
• (ii) CH4
• (iii) SiCl4
• (iv) F2
• (v) H2O
• (vi) OCl2
• (vii) PCl3
• (viii) ICl (iodine has seven electrons in the outer shell of its atoms)
• (ix) HBr
• (x) CHCl3 (C is the central atom).
Multiple bonds
• Sometimes, more than one pair of electrons is shared. Consider oxygen gas (O2):

• Here, each oxygen shares two pairs of electrons to achieve the electron configuration of
neon. The structural formula of this oxygen molecule is written O=O

• A double bond exists between the oxygen atoms. In a structure where three pairs of
electrons are shared, the bond is called a triple bond.
Covalent molecules with multiple bonds
• Write Lewis structures for the following, then write their structural formulae:
• (i) CO2
• (ii) N2
• (iii) COCl2 (C is the central atom)
• (iv) CS2
• (v) H2CO (C is the central atom).
Properties of covalent compounds
• 1. Low melting points and boiling points (they are volatile)
• 2. Low solubility in water
• 3. Do not conduct electricity
Low solubility in water
• Covalent compounds do not contain ions and therefore do not mix so readily with water
molecules. Covalent compounds tend to dissolve readily in non-polar organic solvents,
such as benzene, which also contain covalent molecules.
Low melting points and boiling points
• They are often liquids or gases at room temperature (think of O 2, H2O, N2 and CO2).

• The molecules are not attracted towards each other by strong electrostatic forces – so they
are pulled apart at relatively low temperatures.
• The forces that attract molecules together (the intermolecular forces) are called van der
Waals’ forces and are relatively weak.

Gecko
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gzm7yD-JuyM
Do not conduct electricity

• Covalent compounds can not conduct electricity because they do not

contain ions.
General rules
• Metal + Non-metal → Ionic bonding

Ex: NaCl, MgO, NaOH, KCl……

• Non-metal + Non-metal → Covalent bonding

Ex: O2, H2O, N2, CH4……

• Hydrogen should be classified as a non-metal.

 Electronegativity ( 電負度；陰電性 ) P58
• The electronegativity of an element is a measure of the ability of its atoms
to attract electrons in a covalent bond.
• An element with a high electronegativity has strong electron pulling power and
an element with a low electronegativity has weak pulling power.
Polar covalent molecules ( 極性共價分子 )
• The electrons in a bond between two identical atoms, such as that
present in H2, can be considered to be equally shared between both
of them. If the atoms are not identical, however, the electrons may
be more attracted to one atom than the other.
• Fluorine attracts electrons in a covalent bond much more than hydrogen – it
has a high electronegativity 電負度 . Because the shared electrons are more
associated with the fluorine atom rather than the hydrogen atom, the
structural formula of the molecule is sometimes written as

δ means ”slightly”
A covalent bond which has a positive end and a negative end is called a polar covalent bond and a
molecule which has a positive end and a negative end is said to possess a dipole( 偶極 ) (two poles).
H.W 2
• Chapter 4: Read and complete the exercises (Exercises 4A, 4B, 4F, 4H, 4I)
• Key words: Lewis Symbols, Reactions, Equations, Ionic
compounds, Covalent compounds, Lewis Structure,
Electronegativity
• Deadline: before 10/22 (Tuesday.) 23:59 mail to
etmargarcia123@gmail.com
Include Subject as “NAME-Homework 2”
Kahoot!