Chapter 2

The Physical Layer

 Contents
2.1 THE THEORETICAL BASIS FOR DATA COMMUNICATION

2.2 GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

2.3 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

2.4 COMMUNICATION SATELLITES

2.5 DIGITAL MUDULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

2.6THE PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK

2.7 THE MOBILE TELEPHONE SYSTEM

2
 Key contents
 Theoretical Basis
 Transmission Media
 Examples of Communication System
 Communication Satellites
 Public Switched Telephone System
 The Mobile Telephone System Cellular Radio
 Cable Television

3
2.1 The Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication

 Fourier Analysis
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals
 Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

4
 2.1.1 Fourier Analysis
 
1
g (t )  c   an sin( 2nft )  bn cos( 2nft )
2 n 1 n 1

f=1/T
an , bn


2 T
an   g(t)sin(2 πnft)dt
T 0
2 2
2 T
bn   g(t)cos(2 πnft)dt a b
n n
T 0
2 T 与相应频率处所传输的能量成正
c   g(t)dt 比
T 0
5
2.1.2 Bandwidth-Limited Signals

A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes.

(b) – (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.
6
Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)

(d) – (e) Successive approximations to the original signal.

9
Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)
第一个谐波 发送的谐波数

Relation between data rate and harmonics.

 
1
g (t )  c   an sin( 2nft )  bn cos( 2nft ) 10
2 n 1 n 1
 2.1.3 The Maximum Data Rate of a channel

 Signal-to-noise ratio S/N

 （ DB) = 10log10S/N
 Nyquist theorem ：
Max Baud （ B/s) = 2HBaud
The maximum baud rate in the ideal low
frequence channel
--H:bandwidth of a low-pass filter

maximum data rate(b/s) = 2H log2V

bits/sec
1.A noiseless 3-kHz channel (H)
2.Two level signals (V=2)
=>Max bps
=2x3kxlog22=6kbps 11
Shannon’s theorem
C = H log2(1+S/N) bit/s 1.A noise 3-kHz channel
(H)
 H Bandwidth(Hz)
2. 30dB= （ dB ） = 10 *
 S Signal power log10(S/N) (dB)
N Noise power Max bps

 S/N signal-to-noise ratio=3kxlog2(1+1000)=30kbps

C maximum number of bits/sec
 The greater the signal to noise ratio in the
channel bandwidth or channel, the higher the
limit transmission rate of the information.
2.2 Guided Transmission Data

 Magnetic Media
 Twisted Pair
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optics

13
2.2.2 Twisted Pair

(a) Category 3 UTP. Prior to 1988

(b) Category 5 UTP.
14
 Signal bandwidth
 Cat 3 16MHz
 Cat 5 100MHz
 Cat 6 250MHz
 Cat 7 600MHz
 UTP and STP

15
 2.2.3 Coaxial Cable

A coaxial cable
 （ baseband)coaxial cable
 50Ω– digital transmission
 75Ω– analog transmission
 (broadband)coaxial cable

16
 2.2.4 Fiber Optics
 data communication ： 56K-
>1Gbps50,000Gb/s
 multi-mode fiber
 single-mode fiber

 Light source ： LED and laser

 Fiber VS coaxial cable ：

 High bandwidth, small attenuation, anti-
interference, high safety

17
 Fiber Optics

(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica

fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at
different angles.
(b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.

18
 The working principle of optical
fiber

低折射率 高折射率
( 包层 ) ( 纤芯 )
光线在纤芯中传输的方式是不断地全反射

19
 Transmission of Light through
Fiber

Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared

region.
20
 Fiber Cables
(a) Side view of a single fiber.
(b) End view of a sheath with three
fibers.

21
 Fiber Cables (2)
A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs(light-
emitting diode) as light sources.

22
 Fiber Optic Networks

A fiber optic ring with active repeaters .

 Fiber Optic Networks (2)
A passive star connection in a fiber optics
network.

24
Twisted Pair - Attentuation vs.
Frequency
26 gauge
30
24 gauge
27
24
22 gauge
21
Attenuation

18
19 gauge
(dB/mi)

15
12

9
6
3

10 f (kHz)
1 10 1000
0
Coaxial Cable Attentuation vs.
Frequency
35

0.7/2.9 mm
30

25 1.2/4.4 mm
Attenuation
(dB/km)

20

15
2.6/9.5 mm

10

0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 f

(MHz)
 Outline
 Today's class
 Last class
 2.4
 2.1 Theoretical
Communication
basis for satellites
communication
 2.5 Digital
 2.2 Guide modulation and
transmission multiplexing
media  2.6 The public
 2.3 Wireless switched
transmission telephone
network
 2.7 The mobile
telephone system

 Question?
 Why 01011100 can not tranmit directly in the
channel? Or say, why do digital signals have
to be modulated?
 When we say 100Mbps which means the
capacity of the channel is 100M. True or
False
200Hz Telephone cable Can't pass

300Hz Telephone cable

3300Hz Telephone cable

4000Hz Telephone cable Can't pass

 2.3 Wireless Transmission

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

 Radio Transmission
 Microwave Transmission
 Infrared and Millimeter Waves
 Lightwave Transmission

30
 2.3.1 The Electromagnetic
Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for

communication. 31
 Relation between frequency and
wavelength

The higher the frequency is, the shorter the wavelength is,
the weaker the rake (diffraction effect) capability is, but
the penetrating power (the constant direction) is stronger,
and the signal penetration will lose a lot of energy, so the
transmission distance may be closer. The higher the
frequency is, the greater the loss is in the propagation
process.

λf=c
Signal Amplitude Attentuation

f
 2.3.2 Radio Transmission

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow

the curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere

35
 2.3.3 Microwave Transmission
 f>=300MHz
 Inexpensive
 Line of sight

relay
ain
ount
M
basestation

B
Earth
A

36
 Politics of the Electromagnetic
Spectrum

The ISM bands in the United States.

(ISM:Industrial, Scientific, Medical)
900MHz band: works best, but crowded, not available
2.4GHz band: available, but interference from microwave ovens and radar
installations
5.7GHz band: new and relatively undeveloped fully, equipment expensive,
802.11a

37
 2.4 Communication Satellites

 Geostationary Satellites
 Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
 Satellites versus Fiber

38
 Communication Satellites

Communication satellites and some of their properties,

including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay
time and number of satellites needed for global
coverage. 39
 A
B

C
Communication Satellites (2)

The principal satellite bands.

41
 2.4.2 Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites

Examples:
 24 GPS(Global Positioning System
 satellites at about 18,000km)

 35 Beidou satellites for nevigation

and
 location at about 18,000km)

42
 Another example:
Globalstar (47 LEO satellites)

(a) Relaying in space.

(b) Relaying on the ground.
43
 2.5.1 Baseband transmission (1)
 Line codes send symbols that represent one
or more bits
 NRZ is the simplest, literal line code (+1V=“1”, -
1V=“0”)
 Other codes tradeoff bandwidth and signal
transitions
2.5.1 Baseband transmission (2)
 Line codes send symbols that represent one
or more bits
 Bandwidth efficiency
Use more then two signaling levels
The relation of bit rate and symbol rate
Bit rate = Symbol rate X log2V
where V is number of signaling levels
Baud rate is an old name for symbol
rate
 2.5.2 Passband Transmission (1)

 Modulating the amplitude, frequency, or

phase of a carrier signal sends bits in a
(non-zero) frequency range
NRZ signal of bits

Amplitude shift keying

Frequency shift keying

Phase shift keying

 2.5.3 Frequency Division
Multiplexing (1)
 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
shares the channel by placing users on
different frequencies 。
Guard band

Overall FDM channel

Frequency Devision Multiple
Access
 2.5.4 Time Division Multiplexing
 Time division multiplexing shares a
channel over time
 Users take turns on a fixed schedule; this is not
packet switching or STDM (Statistical TDM)
 Widely used in telephone / cellular systems

Time slot
Frequency Division Multiple
Access
Time Division Multiple Access
2.5.5 Code Division Multiple
Access
 CDMA shares the channel by giving users a
code
 Codes are orthogonal; can be sent at
the same time
 Widely used as part of 3G networks
 2.5.5 Code Division
Multiplexing (2)
 The principle of CDMA
 Orthogonality: Two vectors are orthogonal if and
only if their dot product is zero.

Let S be a m-chip vector,
S for its negation,
For any distinct S and T, the normalized inner
product m
1
S T   SiTi 0
m i 1 
S T 0
Note that if S•T=0, then
The normalizedm
inner product
m m
1 1 1
S  S   S i  S i   S i2   ( 1) 2 1
m i 1 m i 1 m i 1

S S  1
 2.5.5 Code Division
Multiplexing (3)
 Example
 CDMA Example
 There are 4 users communicating with basestation ， and their code
chips are as follows respectively.
 A ： ( -1-1-1+1+1-1+1+1 ) B ： ( -1-1+1-1+1+1+1-1 )
 C ： ( -1+1-1+1+1+1-1-1 ) D ： ( -1+1-1-1-1-1+1-1 )
 If S receives code chip ：（ -1+1-3+1-1-3+1+1 ） ,Please figure out
what data each user sending.

S ：（ -1+1-3+1-1-3+1+1 ）
S*A=( ＋ 1 － 1 ＋ 3 ＋ 1 － 1 ＋ 3 ＋ 1 ＋ 1)/8=1
S*B=( ＋ 1 － 1 － 3 － 1 － 1 － 3 ＋ 1 － 1)/8= － 1
S*C=( ＋ 1 ＋ 1 ＋ 3 ＋ 1 － 1 － 3 － 1 － 1)/8=0
S*D=( ＋ 1 ＋ 1 ＋ 3 － 1 ＋ 1 ＋ 3 ＋ 1 － 1)/8=1
FDMA vs TDMA vs CDMA
 Code Division 1. A sends
message(bits
Multiplexing Access stream) in term of
its code chip to S;
2. S recovers the
original signal via
A's code chip.
3. S sends A'
signals in terms of
B's code chip to B.
4.B recovers A'
signals by B's code
S
chip.

2 3

1
4
Advantage of CDMA: communication
qulity is better, noise is smaller, and
mobile phone's radiation is much
smaller and high-speed data access.
 CDMA&WCDMA&CDMA2000
 WCDMA: Wide CDMA ， Japan and Europe
 CDMA2000: Qualcomm
 TD-SCDMA: TDMA+SCDMA, China mobile

 China mobile using TD-SCDMA

 China telecom using CDMA2000
 China unicom using WCDMA
 Outline
 Today's class
 Last class  2.6 The public
switched telephone
 2.4Communication
network
Satellites
Local loop
 GEO
DSL
 MEO
FTTH
 LEO
Switching
 2.5 Digital
2.7 The mobile
modulation and
multiplexing telephone system
TDMA&FDMA/WDM Cellular
&CDMA GSM
UMTS
4G
2.6 The Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN)
 2.6.1 Structure of the
Telephone System
 A hierarchical system for carrying voice
calls is made of
 Local loops, mostly analog twisted pairs to
houses
 Trunks, digital fiber optic links that carry calls
 Switching offices, that move calls among
trunks

Digital Analog
 2.6.2 Local loop (1): modems (1)

 Telephone modems send digital data over

an 3.3 KHz analog voice channel interface
to the POTS(Plain Old Telephone Service )
 Rates <56 kbps; early way to connect to the
Internet
1. PSTN to INTERNET
 2.6.2 Local loop (2): Digital
Subscriber Lines (1)
 DSL broadband sends data over the local
loop to the local office using frequencies that
are not used for POTS
 Telephone/computers attach to the same old
phone line
 2.6.2 Local loop (2): Digital
Subscriber Lines (2)
 DSL broadband sends data over the local
loop to the local office using frequencies
that are not used for POTS
 Rates vary with line
ADSL2[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line]
up to 12 Mbps
 OFDM is used up to 1.1 MHz for ADSL2
Most bandwidth down
 2. ADSL to INTERNET

 uplink data rate:640kbps ～ 1Mbps

 downlink data rate:1Mbps ～ 8Mbps
 3. VDSL to INTERNET

 Very-high-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line

 Maximum uplink data rate:2.3Mbps
 Maximum downlink data rate:55Mbps
 2.6.2 Local loop (3): Fiber To
The Home
 FTTH (Fiber To The Home)broadband relies
on deployment of fiber optic cables to
provide high data rates customers
 One wavelength can be shared among many
houses
 Fiber is passive (no amplifiers, etc.)
 4. FTTx to INTERNET

FTTx (Fiber To The build,floor, home,desk)

The uplink and downlink bandwidth are 155 Mbps
respectively. The bandwidth used by each user can
be flexibly divided from 64 Kbps to 155 Mbps.
 Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing),
another name for FDM, is used to carry
many signals on one fiber.

C  f
 WDM
WDM is FDM (frequency division multiplexing) of light.

8  2.5 Gb/s
1310 nm
 WDM
 WDM systems are divided into different
wavelength patterns, conventional (CWDM)
and dense (DWDM).
 CWDM systems provide up to 8
channels
 DWDM uses denser channel spacing
A typical system would use 40 channels
at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with
50 GHz spacing
DWDM have been widely used
 5. Hybrid Fiber Coax to INTERNET
 Internet over cable reuses the cable
television plant
 Called HFC (Hybrid Fiber Coax) system
 Data is sent on the shared cable tree from the
head-end, not on a dedicated line per
subscriber (DSL)

ISP
(Internet
)
 Hybrid Fiber Coax vs. ADSL
HFC:
+ Uses coaxial cable to customers (good
bandwidth)
 Data is broadcast to all customers (less
secure)
 Bandwidth is shared over customers so
may vary
ADSL:
+ Bandwidth is dedicated for each customer
+ Point-to-point link does not broadcast data
 Uses twisted pair to customers (lower
bandwidth)
6. Local Area Network to
INTERENT
7. Wireless LAN to INTERNET
 2.6.5 Switching (1)
 PSTN(public service telephone network) uses
circuit switching; Internet uses packet switching

PSTN:

Internet:
 2.6.5 Switching (2)

Circuit switching
requires call setup
(connection) before
data flows smoothly
 Also
disconnection at
end (not shown)
Packet switching
treats messages
independently
 No setup, but
variable queuing
delay at routers
 2.6.5 Switching (3)
 Comparison of circuit-switched and
packet-switched networks
 Outline
 Last class
 2.4Communication
Satellites  Today's class
 GEO 2.7 The mobile
 MEO telephone system
 LEO IG
 2.5 Digital 2G
modulation and 3G
multiplexing 4G
TDMA&FDMA/WDM 5G
&CDMA Conclusion of chap2
 2.6 The public
switched telephone
network
Local loop(PSTN)
DSL(ADSL,VDSL,SD
SL)
FTTx
2.7 The Mobile Telephone
System
 Mobile communication is omnipresent and
indispensable in people's life, study and work.
Global mobile subscribers
Increasing tread of global subscribers
Objects of mobile communications

Whoever Whenev
er

Any 5W Wherev
machine er

Whomever Whatev
er

1-86
 2.7.1 Brief Introduction (1)
 Generations of mobile telephone systems
 1G ： analog voice
 2G ： analog voice and less digital
data
 GSM (Global System for Mobile communications),
CDMA.
 GSM use modulation based on QPSK.
 3G ： digital data and voice
 UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System). CDMA2000, TS-CDMA.
 WCDMA2000 use modulation based on CDMA
 4G ： digital data including voice
 LTE (Long Term Evolution), WiMAX.
 Modulation based on OFDM
 FDD & TDD
 2.7.2 Reusing Frequency in
FDM System
 Cellular mobile phone systems based on
FDM
Each mobile uses a frequency in a cell; moves
cause handoff
Frequencies are reused across non-adjacent cells
To support more mobiles, smaller cells can be
used
-89

The composition of the mobile

communication system
Mobile station
Base station
Mobile switch center (MSC)
PSTN: Public switch telephone network
Cellular design of mobile phone
networks
2.7.3 GSM(2G) – Global System
for Mobile Communications (1)
 Mobile is divided into handset and SIM
(Subscriber Identity Module) card with
credentials.
 Mobiles tell their HLR (Home Location Register)
their current whereabouts for incoming calls.
 Cells keep track of visiting mobiles (in the Visitor
LR).
GSM=FDMA+TDMA
2.7.3 GSM – Global System for
Mobile Communications (2)
 Air interface is based on FDM channels of
200 KHz divided in an eight-slot TDM
frame every 4.615 ms
 Mobile is assigned up- and down-stream slots
to use
 Gives rate of 24.7 kbps Dow
n link

Up
link
The working mode of mobile
communication
 Simplex communication
 Half duplex communication
 Full duplex communication
 Simplex communication
1. Simplex communication: the so-called simplex
communication that can only be sent or received.
2. The characteristics of simplex communication
Advantages: simple equipment,
low price ; BP call

Shortcoming: only one way communication

1-95
 Half duplex communication
1. The transmitter uses the PTT(putsh to talk)
mode transmit the signal, and the receiver is
always working.
2. Advantages: the mobile station has simple
equipment, low price and low power
consumption.
3. Shortcomings: mobile stations need key words,
Interco
m
and is not convenient.
4. Applications: a large number of private networks,
1-96
2.7.3 GSM – Global System for
Mobile Communications (3)
 The evolution of GSM

GPRS (General Packet Radio
Service ， 2.5G)
Theoretical upper bound of data rate is
171.2kbps

EDGE (Enhanced Data rate for GSM
Evolution)
Theoretical upper bound of data rate is
384kbps
 2.7.4 UMTS (3G)– Universal
Mobile Telecommunications
System (1)
 Architecture is an evolution of GSM, namely
WCDMA2000(3G); terminology differs.
 Packets goes to/from the Internet via
SGSN(Serving GPRS Support Node)/GGSN(Gateway GPRS Support
Node).

Radio Network Controller

Mobile swith center Gateway Mobile swith center

Home switch server

Internet
2.7.4 UMTS – Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System
(2)
 Air interface based on CDMA over 5 MHz
channels
 Rates over users <14.4 Mbps (HSPDA:High Speed
Downlink Packet Access) per 5 MHz

 CDMA allows frequency reuse over all cells

 CDMA permits soft handoff (connected to
both cells)
Soft handoff
Hard handoff VS Soft handoff
2.7.4 UMTS – Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System
(3)
 3G standards
 CDMA2000
 WCDMA
 TD-SCDMA

TD-SCDMA=TDMA+CDMA+FDMA ＋
SDMA
SDMA:Space Division Multiple Access
Evolution of Mobile
Communication
 2.7.5 4G Candidate Systems
 Expected to offer peak rates of at least 1
Gbit/s fixed speeds and 100Mbit/s to mobile
users.
 LTE Advanced (Long-term-evolution
Advanced)
 TD-SCDMA LTE
 IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced
 FDD (Frequeny division dual)
 TDD (Time division dual)
FDD & TDD
Motorola->Nokia->Apple/Sumsung/Mi->Apple/
Huawei
LTE
 5G
 Standards: 1. sending and receiving 2. signal
modulation
 5G has been put forwarded by US in 2008.
 There countries are now competing to set the
standards. China, US, and Korea.
 Huawei tries to use 6000MHz, which actually
4G as a core + wirless 5G
 Qualcomm tries to use 28000MHz, which 5G
as a core +wirless 5G
 Korea may join with US to defeat Huawei
 5G
Next major phase of mobile
telecommunication & wireless
system
10 times more capacity than
others
Expected speed up to 10Gbps
More faster & reliable than 4G
Lower cost than previous
generations
Commercially available by around
2020
5G is an end-to-end ecosystem that will create
a fully mobile and fully connected society.
 Conclusion (1)
 What are the functions of physical layer?
 Services provided to the data link layer
 Accepting a raw bit stream from the
source and attempting to deliver it to
the destination
 How to implement those functions
 Signal modulation
 Transmission medium
 Multiplexing
 Connection (Host to network)
 Conclusion (2)
 2.1 Theoretical basis for communication
 Nyquist’s theorem & Shannon's theorem
 Fourier transform

 2.2 Guide transmission media

 Twisted pair & coaxial cable & Fiber optical cable

 2.3/4 Wireless transmission/Satellites

 Bluetooth/infrared&wireless Lan/IEEE802.11 &
Wireless WAN(IEEE802.16/WiMax)
 GEO & MEO & LEO

 2.5 Digital modulation and multiplexing

 Baseband & passband
 TDMA & FDMA & WDMA & CDMA & WCDMA
 Conclusion (3)
 2.6 The public switched telephone
network(how does a host connect to
INTERNET)
 PSTN & FTTx &HFC & ADSL & VDSL & LAN & WLAN

 2.7 The mobile telephone system

 1G (analog signal) & 2G(GSM) & 2.5G (GPRS) &
3G(UMTS->xCDMA) & 4G (LTE) &5G (4G+IoT)