Unit 5

Data Communication and

Computer Network
5.1 Introduction to Communication System
A communication system is a framework or setup that enables
the transmission and reception of information (data, voice, video,
etc.) between two or more entities. It involves a sender, a
medium, and a receiver, with appropriate mechanisms for
encoding, transmitting, decoding, and error correction.
Modes of Communication in
Technology

 Synchronous Communication:
 Real-time communication.
 Examples:
Phone calls, video conferencing, instant
messaging.
 Asynchronous Communication:
 Communication that does not happen in real-time.
 Examples: Emails, recorded videos, forums.
Basic communication model

 Simplex
one way communication i.e one can olny send and another can receive
only
radio broadcast, television
 Half Duplex
two way but not simultaneously
walkie-talkie, ATM, credit card verification system
 Full Duplex
bi-directional
telephone
Introduction to Computer Network

 A computer network is a group of interconnected

computers and devices that communicate with each
other to share resources, exchange data, and enable
collaboration. These devices are linked using various
transmission media (wired or wireless) and
communication protocols.
5.2 Types of Computer Network
Computer Networks are categorized on the basis of geographical
area covered by networks.

a. Local Area Network (LAN):

• connects computers and devices in a limited geographical
areas such as home, school, computer lab or office buildings.
• Homogenous environment(same wire and protocol)
• Twisted pair cable is a major transmission medium in LANs
and in some cases wireless network radio wave or infrared
wave is also used. E.g. College Network
• Star ,Ring,bus
b. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
usually spans a city or large organization.
interconnects a number of LANs using a high capacity
backbone technology such as optical fiber, coaxial cable or
may be wireless connectivity.
Data transfer rate is normally less than LANs but larger than
WANs. E.g. Network cable television.
c. Wide Area Network (WAN):
interconnection of multiple LANs and MANs that covers a
broad area like country, continent or may be entire world
Data transfer rate is less than LANs and Mans.
Frame relay is the technology mostly used in WANs.
5.3 Computer Network
5.3.1 Network Architecture
overall design and structure of a computer network, including its
components, configuration, and the principles governing its operation. It
defines how devices and systems are interconnected, how data is
transferred, and how resources are shared.
a. Peer-to-peer Architecture
b. Client/Server Architecture
c. Peer-to-peer Architecture: Abbreviated as P2P
• each workstation has equivalent capabilities and responsibilities.
• Resources such as processing power, disk storage, network
bandwidth are directly available to other networK
network participants without the need for central co-ordination by
server or stable host.
Advantages:
1. Reduced Cost.
2. Easy to setup and maintain the network
3. No dedicated staff required for administration and controlling
the network.
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to apply security policies.
2. Absence of centralized authority, administration is difficult
3. Not applicable for larger networks.

b. Client/Server Architecture: Client server network architecture

consists of two kinds of computers: client and server. Clients are
the computers that do not share any of its resources but requests
 data and other services from the server computer. On other hand
servers are the computers provide services to the client computer
by responding to client computers requests.

Client (consumer)
server (producer) responsible
to control, manage, and
provides services to all the
client
Advantages:
1. Easy to implement security policy.
2. Gives better performance than P2P.
3. Simplified network administration.
Disadvantages:
4. Server failure can cause network failure.
5. Expensive than P2P as it requires a powerful dedicated server.
6. Extra staff required for administration and management.

Client Server can be divided into two categories: two-tier

architecture and three-tier architecture.
1. Two-Tier Architecture: In this architecture, client requests
resources and single server computer is responsible for
responding directly to the request using its own resources.
2. Three-Tier Architecture: In this architecture, client requests
resources and application server which acts as a middleware
responds to requests. The database server provides application
server with the data it requires.
5.3.2 Network Topologies
Network Topology refers to the layout of connected devices in the
network. It can be categorized into following basic type such as
a. Bus Topology
b. Star Topology
c. Ring Topology
d. Mesh Topology
e. Hybrid Topology
a. Bus Topology: In this topology, all devices are connected by a
central wire and functions as a shared communication medium. A
device wanting to communicate with other device on the network
sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices can
see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes
the message.
Advantages:
1. Easy to set-up.
2. If one station of the topology fails, it doesn’t affects the entire
system.
3. No extra hardware required other than cables.
Disadvantages
4. Difficult to troubleshoot.
5. No two nodes can transmit the data at the same time.
6. If new computers are added to the network, then the
performance degrades.
b. Ring Topology: In this topology, every device is connected to
two of its neighbors forming a closed loop called ring. All
message travels in a same direction but the direction of data
transmission can be either “clockwise” or “counterclockwise”.
Advantages
1. No extra hardware other than wire required.
2. All computer have equal access.
Disadvantages
3. Breakdown of any one station on the ring can disable the
entire system.
4. Adding or deleting the computer disturbs the network
activity.
c. Star Topology: In this topology, all the devices are connected
to a central device. The central device is switch or hob and acts as
a repeater for data flow. If a sender has to send data to other
computer then it has to reach central hub.
Advantages:
1. Flexibility in adding and deleting nodes from the network.
2. Works faster than bus and ring topology.
3. Failure of cable or single computer affects only the single
compu
computer.
Disadvantages
1. Failure of hub/ switch may cause entire system to be failed.
2. Extra hardware like switch or hub is needed, therefore
expensive.
d. Mesh Topology: A type of network topology where each of the
device is interconnected with all other computers in the network
is called mesh topology.
Advantages:
3. High performance because of parallel data transmission.
4. Reliable because of a single cable failure doesn’t affect the
system.
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive as large number of cables is required.
2. Difficult to maintain due to large number of connections.
e. Hybrid Topology: A network topology that uses two or more
network topologies is called hybrid topology. A network may
contain two or more sub-network where each sub-network may
have different topologies and connecting such sub-network is a
hybrid topology.
5.4 Transmission Media
It is also called communication channels or communication
media. It is the path through which signal travels from one
location to another location. They can be divided into two broad
categories: Guided media and Unguided media.
a. Guided Media: The media that transmits signals through
some conductor is called guided media. It is also called as
wired media. It includes twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and
fiber optic cable.
* Twisted-pair cable: A twisted-pair cable is made up of two
plastic insulated copper wires twisted together to form a single
media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and
other is used for ground reference. The twist between wires are
helpful in reducing noise. It can be used for transmitting digital
as well as analog signal. Amplifier or repeater can be used if the
signals are required to transmit over a long distance and requires
in every 5-6 km for digital signal and for digital signal it requires
2-3 km. Data rate of 1Gbps can be achieved but 10 and 100 Mbps
are used. They are commonly used in LAN’s, home and offices.
There are two types of twisted-pair cable: Unshielded and
Shielded.

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

* Coaxial Cable: A coaxial cable consists a central core
conductor of solid wire enclosed in an insulating sheath which is
in turn encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid or a
combination of these two. Inner conductor (copper wire)
performs the data transmission and the inner insulator prevents
any contact with outer conductor (copper mesh) that could cause
electrical interaction (short circuit). The outside insulation
prevents the wire from external environment. There are three
categories of coaxial cable, they are RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58
(Thin Ethernet) and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet).
*Fiber Optic Cable: A fiber-optic cable or optical fiber is made of
glass or plastic that transmits signals in the form of light. The
glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense
glass or plastic and the entire cable is surrounded by plastic
jacket. The principle of total internal reflection is used to transmit
light signal from sender to receiver and cladding is responsible
for internal reflection. Outer plastic jacket is responsible for
protecting the wire from environment.
b. Unguided Media: Unguided media transport electromagnetic
waves without a physical conductor and this type of
communication is also known as wireless communication.
Signals are broadcasted through air and thus available to anyone
who has device capable of receiving them. Wireless transmission
media can be divided into three broad groups: Radio waves,
Microwaves and Infrared Waves.
a. Radio Waves: These are omnidirectional electromagnetic
waves ranging frequencies between 3 KHz to 300 MHz. They
have penetration power and can penetrate through obstacles like
walls and doesn’t requires line of sight (LOS). They are generally
used in AM and FM radio, cordless phones, paging, WIFI etc.
b. Microwaves: Electromagnetic waves having frequencies
between 300 Mhz to 300 Ghz are called microwaves. These are
unidirectional as it requires sending and receiving antennas to be
aligned and requires line of sight communication. They have less
penetration power and cannot pass through objects like walls or
similar. Microwaves can be terrestrial as well as satellite.
* Terrestrial Microwave: Used for long distance telephone
service and employs earth based transmitters and receivers.
Normally it requires tower to be placed at every 30 km due earth
curvature.
* Satellite Microwave: Used for television distribution, long
distance telephone and private industrial network. They relay
transmission through communication satellites that operates in g
geosynchronous orbits 22,300 miles above the earth.

Fig: Terrestrial Microwaves

Fig: Satellite Microwaves

c. Infrared Wave: Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies
between 300 GHz to 400 THz are called infrared wave and are
used for short distance communication. They are directional in
nature, requires line-of sight communication and has less
penetration power.

5.5 Mode of Communication

Mode of data communication / transmission can be divided into
three categories: Simplex mode, Half duplex mode and Full
Duplex mode.
a. Simplex Mode: A simplex mode is a connection in which the
data flows in only one direction from transmitter to receiver. E.g.
data transmission from computer to the printer, radio broadcast,
data transmission from scanner to computer etc.

b. Half Duplex Mode: In this mode, the data flows in one

direction or other but not both at the same time. With this type of
connection, each end of the connection transmits data in turns.
This type of connection makes it possible to have bidirectional
communication using the full capacity of the line. E.g. Walkie
Talkie.
c. Full Duplex Mode: A full duplex is a connection in which the
data flow in both direction simultaneously. Each end of the line
can thus transmit and receive at the same time. E.g. Internet,
Telephone line.
5.6 Network Devices
Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers,
fax machines and other electronic devices to a network are called
network devices. Some of the network devices are as follows:
a. MODEM
b. Multiplexers and demultiplexers
c. Repeater
d. Hub
e. Switch
f. Bridge
g. Router
h. Amplifier
i. Network Adapter
a. MODEM: MODEM stands for Modulation and Demodulation.
It is a network device that converts the digital signals from a
computer or transmission terminal at one end of a communication
link into analog frequency that can be transmitted over ordinary
telephone lines. A modem at the other end of the communication
line converts the transmitted analog signal back into digital form
at a receiving terminal. This process is known as modulation and
demodulation.
b. Multiplexers and demultiplexers: Multiplexer is a
combinational circuit that has maximum of 2^n data inputs, ‘n’
selection lines and single output line. De-Multiplexer is a
combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of
Multiplexer. It has single input, ‘n’ selection lines and maximum
of 2^n outputs.
c. Repeater: A network device used to replicate or regenerate a
signal is called repeater. Repeaters are used in transmission
system to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss. Analog repeaters can only amplify the analog
signal while digital repeater reconstruct a new signal that is near
to its original quality.
d. Hub: A hub is an unintelligent network device that broadcasts
incoming signal to all the stations connected to it. Typically used
in star topology and are also used to connect two segments of the
same LAN that use same protocol.
e. Switch: Switch is also a network device used to connect
computer in star topology which can filter and forward packets
between stations. Unlike hubs which just broadcasts incoming
signal, it transmits signal to the intended recipient only. It has
some intelligence unlike hubs which understands when two
devices want to communicate to each other and provide them a
switched network.
f. Bridge: Bridge are the network devices that are used to connect
two LAN’s or two segments of the same LAN that use the same
protocol. The main purpose of bridge is to divide collision
domain.
g. Router: A router is a device that is used to connect different
networks having different protocols. It routs data to its correct
location by using the information in the routing table maintained
by it. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or
more network connect and are the critical device that handles
data flowing between networks.
h. Amplifier: An amplifier is a device that is used to boost
(amplify) the power of the signal that is transmitted over a
communication network. It is mainly used in analog transmission
and the main draw back of amplifier is that it boosts the noise
also.
i. Network Adapter: Also know as NIC (Network Interface Card)
or LAN cards. These are the connectivity device that enables a
workstation, server, printer or other node to receive and transmit
the data over the network media. Every NIC card has unique 48-
bit MAC (Media Access Control) address which is fixed during
manufacturing.
5.7 Network Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules and regulations that governs data
communication. It ensures that two parties in the same
communication speaks the same language. A protocol defines
Syntax: What is communicated.
Semantics: How it is communicated
Timing: When it is communicated.
Some of the network protocol includes: OSI (Open System
Interconnection), TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol) FTP (File
Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Main Transfer Protocol)etc.
5.8 OSI Reference Model
OSI is acronym of Open System Interface. This model is
developed by International organization of Standards (ISO) and
therefore also referred as ISO-OSI model. It consists of 7 layer
architecture with each layer having specific functionality to
perform. Seven layers of OSI model are as follows:
1. Physical Layer: This is the lowest layer of OSI reference
model and is connected with transmission media. It is
responsible for following activities:
• Activating, maintaining and deactivating physical connection.
• Defining voltage and data rates needed for transmission.
• Converting digital bits into electrical signal.
• Deciding whether the connection is simplex, half duplex and
full duplex.
2. Data Link Layer: This layer provides services for reliable
transfer of information across the physical link. This layer
performs the following functions:
• Performs the synchronization, flow control and error control
for the information which is to be transmitted over the
physical link.
• Enables error detection and adds error detection codes to the
data which are to be transmitted.
3. Network Layer: Network layer provides upper layer with
independence from the data transmission and switching
technology used to connect systems. Following are the functions
of network layer:
• To acts as the network controller by deciding which route data
should take
• To switch the signals through selected route to other end.
• To divide the outgoing messages into packets and to assemble
incoming packets into message for higher level.
4. Transport Layer: This is the layer that guarantees transmission
of data from one end to other end. This layer performs the
following functions:
• It decides if the data transmission should take place on
parallel path or single path.
• It breaks the data groups into smaller units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.
• It provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
5. Session Layer: Session is the logical connection established
between application in sending and receiving machine. The
Session layer performs the following functions:
• It establishes, manages and terminates the connection
(session) between co-operating applications.
• It controls logging on and off and user identification.
6. Presentation Layer: This layer is responsible to make sure that
the information is delivered in such a form that the receiving
system will understand and use it. This layer performs the
following functions:
• Character code translation: E.g. ASCII to EBCDIC
• Data conversion: bit order, integer to floating point etc.
• Data Compression: reduces the number of bits that needed to
transmitted on the network.
• Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. E.g.
password encryption.
7. Application Layer: This is the layer in which ends user
interact. User create things to be sent or open the things received
by using this layer. This layer contains a variety of commonly
needed functions:
• Resource sharing and remote file access.
• Remote printer access and network management.
• Directory services and electronic messaging etc.
5.9 Centralized vs Distributed Systems

Centralized System Distributed System

 Centralized System Distributed System
1. All calculation are done on Calculation is distributed to
particular system. multiple computers.
2. Centralized system Distributed system provide
provides slower response. faster response.
3. Centralized system are Distributed system are
easy to maintain as there is difficult to maintain as there
only single point of failure. are multiple point of failure.
4. Centralized system are Distributed system are very
unreliable as it has single reliable because of single
point failure causing chaos. point failure doesn’t cause
chaos.
5. Centralized system have Distributed system have
very low scalability. infinite scalability.
6. Centralized system Distributed system requires
requires low capital and more capital and operational
operational cost and have cost and have higher
lower administrative administrative overhead.
overheads.
7. Security enforcement is Security enforcement is
easy and centralized system. difficult in distributed
system.