Forging

• It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed

between two dies, using either impact load or hydraulic load (or gradual
load) to deform it.

•It is used to make a variety of high-strength components for

automotive, aerospace, and other applications. The components include
engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, jet engine turbine parts etc.

• Category based on temperature : cold, warm, hot forging

• Category based on presses:
impact load => forging hammer; gradual pressure => forging
press
• Category based on type of forming:
In open
Open die forging, Close die die(impression
forging forging, thedie
work piece is
forging,
flashless forging) compressed between two flat plates or
dies, thus allowing the metal to flow
without any restriction in the sideward
direction relative to the die surfaces.
Open die forging
 impression die
forging

flashless
forging

In impression die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape that is given
to the work piece during compression, thus restricting the metal flow
significantly. There is some extra deformed material outside the die
impression which is called as flash. This will be trimmed off later.

In flashless forging, the work piece is fully restricted within the die and
no flash is produced. The amount of initial work piece used must be
controlled accurately so that it matches the volume of the die cavity.
 Open die
forging
A simplest example of open die forging is compression of billet between
two flat die halves which is like compression test. This also known as
upsetting or upset forging. Basically height decreases and diameter
increases.
Under ideal conditions, where there is no friction between the billet and
die surfaces, homogeneous deformation occurs. In this, the diameter
increases uniformly throughout its height.
In ideal condition, ε = ln (ho/h). h will be equal to hf at the end of
compression, ε will be maximum for the whole forming. Also F = σf A is
used to find the force required for forging, where σf is the flow stress
corresponding to ε at that stage of forming.

Start of compression Partial compression Completed compression

In actual forging operation, the deformation will not be
homogeneous as bulging occurs because of the presence of
friction at the die-billet interface. This friction opposes the
movement of billet at the surface. This is called barreling effect.
The barreling effect will be significant as the diameter-to-height
(D/h) ratio of the workpart increases, due to the greater contact
area at the billet–die interface. Temperature will also affect the
barreling phenomenon.

Start of Partial Completed

compression compression compression

In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using, F =

Kf σf A by considering the effect of friction and D/h ratio. Here,
K f  1 0.4D
h
Where Kf = forging shape factor, μ = coefficient of friction, D = work piece
piece
diameter, h = work
height
 Open-die forging

•It uses slightly contoured dies to help shape the workpiece.

•Workpiece manipulation (e.g., rotation) is often required for the
desired shape.
•Operator skill is crucial for successful forging operations.
•Example: Large square cast ingots are shaped into round cross-
sections in the steel industry.
•Produces rough forms that require further processing for final
dimensions.
•Key benefit: Creates favorable grain flow and metallurgical structure.

•Related operations:
• Fullering: Reduces cross-section and redistributes metal using
convex dies.
• Edging: Similar to fullering but uses concave dies.
• Cogging: Sequential compressions along a workpiece to reduce
cross-section and increase length, used for producing blooms and
slabs.
•Cogging is also known as incremental forging in some cases
Typical load-stroke
Effect of D/h ratio on
curve in open die
load:
forging Compression
Load

µ2 > µ1
µ2
µ1
µ0

Effect of h/D ratio on D/h

barreling:

Long cylinder: h/D >2 Cylinder having h/D < 2 Frictionless compression
With friction
 Closed die forging
Closed die forging called as impression die forging is performed in dies
which has the
impression that will be imparted to the work piece through forming.

In the intermediate stage, the initial billet deforms partially giving a

bulged shape. During the die full closure, impression is fully filled with
deformed billet and further moves out of the impression to form flash.

In multi stage operation, separate die cavities are required for shape
change. In the initial stages, uniform distribution of properties and
microstructure are seen. In the final stage, actual shape modification is
observed. When drop forging is used, several blows of the hammer may be
required for each step.

Starting Intermedia Final stage

stage te stage with flash
formation
The formula used for open die forging earlier can be used for
closed die
forging, i.e.,
F = Kf σf A
Where F is maximum force in the operation; A is projected area
of the part including flash, σf is flow stress of the
material, Kf is forging shape factor.

Now selecting the proper value of flow stress is difficult because

the strain varies throughout the work piece for complex shapes
and hence the strength varies. Sometimes an average strength is
used. Kf is used for taking care of different shapes of parts. Table
shows the typical values of Kf used for force calculation. In hot
working, appropriate flow stress at that temperature is used.

The above equation is applied to find the maximum force during

the operation, since this is the load that will determine the
required capacity of the press used in the forging operation.
Impression die forging is not capable of making close
tolerance objects. Machining is generally required to achieve
the accuracies needed. The basic geometry of the part is
obtained from the forging process, with subsequent machining
done on those portions of the part that require precision
finishing like holes, threads etc.

In order to improve the efficiency of closed die forging,

precision forging was developed that can produce forgings with
thin sections, more complex geometries, closer tolerances, and
elimination of machining allowances. In precision forging
operations, sometimes machining is fully eliminated which is
called near-net shape forging.
 Flashless forging
The three stages of flashless forging is shown
below:

In flashless forging, most important is that the work piece

volume must equal the space in the die cavity within a
very close tolerance.
If the starting billet size is too large, excessive pressures will
cause damage to the die and press.
If the billet size is too small, the cavity will not be filled.

Because of the demands, this process is suitable to make

simple and symmetrical part geometries, and to work
materials such as Al, Mg and their alloys.
Coining is a simple application of closed die forging in which fine
details in the die impression are impressed into the top or/and
bottom surfaces of the work piece.

Though there is little flow of metal in coining, the pressures

required to reproduce the surface details in the die cavity are at par
with other impression forging operations.

Starting of Ram
Fully
cycle pressure
compressed
removed and
Making of coin ejection of
part
 Forging hammers, presses and dies
Hammers:
Hammers operate by applying an impact loading on the work
piece. This is also called as drop hammer, owing to the means of
delivering impact energy.
When the upper die strikes the work
piece, the impact energy applied causes
the part to take the form of the die
cavity. Sometimes, several blows of the
hammer are required to achieve the
desired change in shape.

Drop hammers are classified as:

Gravity drop hammers
hammers,-power
achieve their
drop
energy by the falling weight of a heavy
hammers.
ram. The force of the blow is dependent
on the height of Drop
the drop and the weight of the ram. hammers
Power drop hammers - accelerate the
ram by
pressurized air or
steam.
Presses:
The force is given to the forging billet gradually, and not like
impact
force.
Mechanical presses: In these presses, the rotating motion of a
drive motor is converted into the translation motion of the ram.
They operate by means of eccentrics, cranks, or knuckle joints.
Mechanical presses typically achieve very high forces at the
bottom of the forging stroke.
Hydraulic presses : hydraulically driven piston is used to actuate
the ram. Screw presses : apply force by a screw mechanism that
drives the vertical ram. Both screw drive and hydraulic drive
operate at relatively low ram speeds.
Forging dies:
Parting line: The parting line divides the upper die from the lower
die. In other words, it is the plane where the two die halves meet.
The selection of parting line affects grain flow in the part, required
load, and flash formation.
Draft: It is the amount of taper given on the sides of the part
required to remove it from the die.

Draft angles: It is meant for easy removal of part after operation is

completed. 3° for Al and Mg parts; 5° to 7° for steel parts.

Webs and ribs: They are thin portions of the forging that is
parallel and perpendicular to the parting line. More difficulty is
witnessed in forming the part as they become thinner.

Fillet and corner radii: Small radii limits the metal flow and
increase stresses on die surfaces during forging.

Flash: The pressure build up because of flash formation is

controlled proper design of gutter and flash land.
 Other forging operations
Upset forging:
It is a deformation operation in which a cylindrical work piece is increased
in diameter
with reduction in length. In industry practice, it is done as closed die
forging.

Upset forging is widely used in the fastener industries to form heads on

nails, bolts,
and similar products.

Gripping of work piece and retracting of stop

Feeding of work piece

Forward movement of Forging operation completes

punch and upsetting
Headin
g:
The following figure shows variety of heading operations with
different die profiles.

Heading a die using open die forging Round head formed by punch only

Head formed inside die only Bolt head formed by both

die and punch

Long bar stock (work piece) is fed into the machines by horizontal slides,
the end of the stock is upset forged, and the piece is cut to appropriate
length to make the desired product. The maximum length that can be
upset in a single blow is three times the diameter of the initial wire
stock.
 Swaging:
Swaging is used to reduce the diameter of a tube or a rod at the
end of the work piece to create a tapered section. In general, this
process is conducted by means of rotating dies that hammer a
workpiece in radial direction inward to taper it as the piece is fed
into the dies. A mandrel is required to control the shape and size of
the internal diameter of tubular parts during swaging.
Swagin
Radial forging:
g This operation is same as swaging,
except that in radial forging, the dies do
not rotate around the work piece,
instead, the work is rotated as it feeds
into the hammering dies.

Diameter reduction of solid work Tube tapering Swaging to form a groove on

the tube

Swaging with different die

profiles
R. Swaging the edge of a cylinder
G
Roll forging:
It is a forming process used to reduce the cross section of a
cylindrical or rectangular rod by passing it through a set of opposing
rolls that have matching grooves w.r.t. the desired shape of the final
part. It combines both rolling and forging, but classified as forging
operation.

Depending on the amount of deformation, the rolls rotate partially.

Roll-forged parts are generally stronger and possess desired grain
structure compared to machining that might be used to produce
the same part.
Orbital forging:
In this process, forming is imparted to the workpiece by means
of a cone- shaped upper die that is simultaneously rolled and
pressed into the work. The work is supported on a lower die.

Because of the inclined axis of cone, only a small area of the work
surface is compressed at any stage of forming. As the upper die
revolves, the area under compression also revolves. Because of
partial deformation contact at any stage of forming, there is a
substantial reduction in press load requirement.
Isothermal forging:
It is a hot-forging operation in which the work is maintained at
some elevated temperature during forming. The forging dies are
also maintained at the same elevated temperature. By avoiding
chill of the work in contact with the cold die surfaces, the metal
flows more readily and the force requirement is reduced.

The process is expensive than conventional forging and is usually

meant for difficult-to-forge metals, like Ti, superalloys, and for
complex part shapes.
The process is done in vacuum or inert atmosphere to avoid rapid
oxidation of the die material.
 Forging in Plane Strain

The primary characteristic of plane strain is that the strain in one dimension is
assumed to be zero, effectively restricting deformation to a single plane.

• “P” is the forging stress.

• is frictional shear stress
at the die surface
developed due to ram
travel.
• is lateral pressure.
• h is height of the plate.
• 2a is the length of the
Figure : Stresses acting on a plate forged in plane strain
plate.
 = 2k
Where is flow stress and k is yield stress in pure shear.
• Where L= 2a. Eq (9) shows the that as the ratio of length to thickness (L/h), increases,
the resistance to compressive deformation increases rapidly.

Use Eq (6) to
understand
the stress
variation.

Figure 2: Distribution of normal stress and longitudinal stress for compression

between plates.
• In this simple case, the centreline of the plate defines a neutral surface.
• For the vertical downward motion of the ram the metal flow is in the lateral, or
horizontal direction.
• The metal is stationary at the neutral surface, but the flow is outward away from
the neutral surface.
There is another way other than Coulomb’s law to describe the interface shear stress.

The equation expresses the concept of interface friction factor (m) in metal
forming processes. Instead of assuming that the interface shear strength
(τi) is equal to the shear yield stress (k), as in the case of perfect sticking
friction, the interface shear strength is considered to be a fraction of the yield
strength in shear. This fraction is represented by the interface friction factor
m.
Mathematically, it is given by:
m= /k
where:
•m is the interface friction factor
•τi is the interface shear strength
•k is the yield stress in shear
The value of m ranges from 0 to 1, where:
•m=0 represents perfect sliding (no frictional resistance).
•m=1 represents perfect sticking (maximum frictional resistance).
Substituting =mk into Eq (4)

(10)

(11)
For special case of sticking friction , m=1

(12)

The mean forging pressure is

(13)
• Frictional conditions in metal forming can be intermediate

• Sliding friction occurs near the edges (𝑥=𝑎) where the pressure is
between full sticking and slipping.

lower.

• At a certain distance 𝑥1 from the centerline, the shear stress

• Moving closer to the neutral surface, the pressure increases.

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝑘 = 𝜎o/√3 = 𝜎,o /2

reaches:

𝜏𝑥𝑦=𝜇𝑝=𝑘=𝜎,o /2
• At this point, friction follows Coulomb’s law:

• Using Equation (6), the location of the boundary between slipping

and sticking friction can be determined.

(14)
 Residual Stresses in Forging
• Residual stresses in forgings are usually small due to hot-working.
• Significant residual stresses and warping can occur during
quenching in heat treatment.
Precautions for Cooling Large Steel Forgings
• Risk of Flaking
• Large forgings can develop small cracks (flakes) at the center.
• Caused by high hydrogen content in large steel ingots and
residual stresses.
Preventing Thermal & Transformation Stresses
• Large forgings must be cooled very slowly from the working
temperature.
Methods include:
• Burying in ashes for up to several weeks.
• Controlled cooling treatments (used for railroad rails &
special forgings).
• Automated cooling cycles to gradually lower temperature.
Solution to Flaking
Using vacuum-degassed steel significantly reduces flaking issues.