Tafila Technical University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Manufacturing processes (2) / Metal forming processes
Dr. Ahmad Mostafa
1st Semester 2021/2022

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

1. ROLLING
Rolling: is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by compressive
forces exerted by two opposing rolls.
The rotating rolls perform two main functions:
1. Pull the work into the gap between them by
friction between workpart and rolls
2. Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce
cross section
1.1. Types of Rolling:
- By workpiece geometry
a. Flat rolling: used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross-section
b. Shape rolling: a square cross-section is formed into a shape such as an I-beam
- By work temperature
a. Hot Rolling: most common due to the large amount of deformation required
- Hot-rolled plates are used in shipbuilding, bridges, boilers, welded
structures for various heavy machines, tubes and pipes, and other products
b. Cold rolling: produces finished sheet and plate stock with improved strength and
hardness
- cold-rolled sheets, strips, and coils are ideal for stampings, exterior panels,
and other parts of products ranging from automobiles to appliances and
office furniture
Soaking: is when the ingot is placed in a furnace where it remains for many hours until it reaches
a uniform temperature throughout, so that the metal will flow consistently during rolling.
 For steel, the desired temperature for rolling is around 1200°C.
Soaking pits: are the furnaces in which soaking is carried out.
Intermediate rolling shapes are:
a. Bloom: has a square cross section 150 mm × 150 mm or larger.
o Blooms are rolled into structural shapes and rails for railroad tracks
b. Slab: is rolled from an ingot or a bloom and has a rectangular cross section of width 250
mm or more and thickness 40 mm or more.
o Slabs are rolled into plates, sheets, and strips
c. Billet: is rolled from a bloom and is square with dimensions 40 mm on a side or larger.
o Billets are rolled into bars and rods. These shapes are the raw materials for
machining, wire drawing, forging, and other metalworking processes

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 Figure 4.1: Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill
1.2. Rolling mill configuration:
a. Two-high rolling mill: consists of two opposing rolls
 The two-high configuration can be either reversing or non-reversing
b. Three-high rolling mill: three rolls in a vertical column, and the direction of rotation of
each roll remains unchanged
c. Four-high rolling mill: uses two smaller-diameter rolls to contact the work and two backing
rolls behind them
 Roll-work contact length is reduced with a lower roll radius, and this leads to lower
forces, torque, and power
d. Cluster rolling mill: allows smaller working rolls against the work
e. Tandem rolling mill: is used to achieve higher throughput rates in standard products

Figure 4.2: Various configurations of rolling mills: (a) 2-high, (b) 3-high, (c) 4-high, (d) cluster
mill, and (e) tandem rolling mill.
DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 2|CHAPTER 4
1.3. Analysis of flat rolling:
In flat rolling, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that
its thickness is reduced by an amount called the draft (d):

Where,
d = draft
to = starting thickness
tf = final thickness
Draft is sometimes expressed as a fraction of the starting
stock thickness, called the reduction (r):

Where,
r = reduction
 In addition to thickness reduction, rolling usually increases work width and this is called
spreading.
The rolls contact the work along an arc defined by the angle θ. Each roll has radius R, and its
rotational speed gives it a surface velocity vr. This velocity is greater than the entering speed of
the work vo and less than its exiting speed vf. Since the metal flow is continuous, there is a gradual
change in velocity of the work between the rolls.
The velocity change is proven by the following relationships. The volume of metal exiting the rolls
equals the volume entering:

Where, wo and wf are the widths before and after work, mm; and Lo and Lf are the lengths before
and after work, mm.
The volume flow rates of material before and after rolling must be the same, so the before and
after velocities can be related:

Where, vo and vf are the entering and exiting velocities of the work.
No-slip point, also known as the neutral point: is one point along the arc
where work velocity equals roll velocity. On either side of this point, slipping
and friction occur between roll and work.
The amount of slip between the rolls and the work can be measured by means of the forward slip,
a term used in rolling that is defined:

Where,
s = forward slip
vf = final (exiting) work velocity, m/s
vr = roll speed, m/s
DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 3|CHAPTER 4
The true strain experienced by the work in rolling is based on before and after stock thicknesses
is:

̅ 𝒇 applied to the work material in

The true strain can be used to determine the average flow stress 𝒀
flat rolling.

 On the entrance side of the no-slip point, friction force is in one direction, and on the other
side it is in the opposite direction. However, the two forces are not equal.
 The friction force on the entrance side is greater, so that the net force pulls the work through
the rolls. If this were not the case, rolling would not be possible.
The maximum possible draft that can be accomplished in flat rolling with a given coefficient of
friction:
𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇2 𝑅
Where,
dmax = maximum draft, mm
µ = coefficient of friction
R= roll radius, mm
 The equation indicates that if friction was zero, draft would be zero, and it would be
impossible to accomplish the rolling operation.
 Hot rolling is often characterized by a condition called sticking, in which the hot work
surface adheres to the rolls over the contact arc.
 This condition often occurs in the rolling of steels and high-temperature alloys.
 When sticking occurs, the coefficient of friction can be as high as 0.7
Force, F, required to maintain separation between the two rolls can be computed by integrating
the unit roll pressure over the roll-work contact area:

Where,
F = rolling force, N
w = the width of the work being rolled, mm
p = roll pressure, MPa
L = length of contact between rolls and work, mm

Contact length can be approximated by:

The torque for each roll is:
For the fact that a rolling mill consists of two powered rolls, we get the following expression:

Where, P = power, J/s or W; N = rotational speed, 1/s (rev/min); F = rolling force, N; and L =
contact length, m.
DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 4|CHAPTER 4
Exercise 7:
A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two powered rolls each of
radius = 250 mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a roll speed of 50
rev/min. The work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and n = 0.15, and the
coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is assumed to be 0.12. Determine if the
friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll
force, torque, and horsepower.

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 5|CHAPTER 4

1.4. Roll force in hot rolling
 Ingots and slabs are usually hot rolled
 The coefficient of friction, μ, at elevated temperatures can range from 0.3 to 0.7
The average strain rate, 𝝐̅̇, in flat rolling can be obtained by:

𝑽𝒓 𝒕𝒐
𝝐̅̇ = 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑳 𝒕𝒇
Where:
Vr = roll speed, m/s
L = Contact length
to = Starting thickness
tf = final thickness

1.5. Defects in rolls

a) Roll deflection
 Because of the forces acting on them, rolls undergo changes
in shape during rolling.
 Roll forces tend to bend the rolls elastically during rolling.
 The higher the elastic modulus of the roll material, the
smaller the roll deflection.
 As a result of roll bending, the rolled strip tends to be thicker at its center than at its edges
(crown).
The usual method of avoiding this problem is by:
1. Grinding the rolls in such a way that their diameter at the
center is slightly larger than at their edges (camber).
2. Subjecting the rolls to external bending by applying
moments at their bearings.
b) Roll flattening
 Roll forces also tend to flatten the rolls elastically, much like
the flattening of tires on automobiles.
 Flattening increases the roll's radius, causing a large contact
area for the same reduction in thickness.
 This situation also results in an increase in the roll force, F.

It can be shown that the new (distorted) roll radius, r', is given by:
𝑪𝑭́
𝒓́ = 𝒓 (𝟏 + )
𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇
𝑳́𝒅 = √𝒓́ ∆𝒉
Where:
C = 2.3 × 10-2 mm2/kN for steel rolls and 4.57 × 10-2 mm2/kN for cast-iron rolls
𝑭́= the roll force per unit width of strip, expressed in kN/mm.

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 6|CHAPTER 4

1.6. Defects in rolled products
Defects are undesirable because:
i. They compromise surface appearance
ii. They may adversely affect strength, formability, and other manufacturing characteristics
Defects may be present on the surfaces of rolled plates and sheets, or there may be internal
structural defects.
a) Surface defects
Such as:
- Scale
- Rust
- Scratches
- Gouges
- Pits
- Cracks Forms of structural defects
These defects may be caused by inclusions and impurities in the original cast material or by
various other conditions related to material preparation and to the rolling operation.
b) Structural defects
- Wavy edges: Are caused by bending of the rolls, where by the edges of the strip become
thinner than at the center, as shown in (a)
 The edges buckle because they are constrained by the central region from
expanding freely in the longitudinal (rolling) direction
- Zipper cracks in the center of the work as shown in (b)
- Edge cracks: in (c) usually result from poor material ductility.
 Edge defects in rolled sheets often are removed by shearing and slitting operations
- Crocodiling (Alligatoring) (d): Is a complex phenomenon resulting from inhomogeneous
deformation of the material during rolling or defects in the original cast ingot, such as
piping.
1.7. Characteristics of Rolled Metals
Residual Stresses
 Residual stresses can develop in rolled plates and sheets, especially during cold rolling
 Small-diameter rolls or small thickness reductions per pass tend to plastically deform the
metal more at its surfaces than in the bulk
 Large-diameter rolls or high reductions per pass tend to deform the bulk more than the
surfaces. This is due to the higher frictional constraint at the surfaces along the arc of
contact

Figure (a) Residual stresses developed in rolling with small-

diameter rolls or at small reductions in thickness per pass.
Figure (b) Residual stresses developed in rolling with large-
diameter rolls or at high reductions per pass. Note the
reversal of the residual stress patterns.

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 7|CHAPTER 4

Dimensional Tolerances
 Thickness tolerances for cold-rolled sheets usually range from ±0.1 to 0.35 mm, depending
on the thickness. Tolerances are much greater for hot-rolled plates, because of thermal
effects.
 Flatness tolerances are usually within ±15 mm/m for cold rolling and ±55 mm/m for hot
rolling.
Surface Roughness
 Cold rolling can produce a very fine surface finish; hence, products made of cold-rolled
sheets may not require additional finishing operations, depending on the application
 Hot rolling and sand casting produce the same range of surface roughness
Gage Numbers: The thickness of a sheet usually is identified by a gage number
 The smaller the number, the thicker the sheet.
 Rolled sheets of copper and of brass also are identified by thickness changes during rolling,
such as 1/4 hard, 1/2 hard, and so on.
1.8. Flat-rolling practice
The initial rolling steps (breaking down) of the material typically is done by hot rolling, above
the recrystallization temperature of the metal.
 Initial breaking down of a cast ingot by hot rolling converts the coarse-grained, brittle, and
porous structure into a wrought structure with finer grains and enhanced ductility.
 Typical temperature ranges for hot rolling are about 450°C for aluminum alloys, up to
1250°C for alloy steels, and up to 1650°C for refractory alloys.

Figure 4.3: Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during hot
rolling
1.9. Roll Materials
 The basic requirements for roll materials are strength and resistance to wear
 Common roll materials are cast iron, cast steel, and forged steel
 Tungsten carbide is also used for small-diameter rolls, such as the Working roll in the
cluster mill
 Forged-steel rolls, although more costly than cast rolls, have higher strength, stiffness, and
toughness than cast-iron rolls.
 Rolls for cold rolling are ground to a fine finish. For special applications, they also are
polished.
 Rolls made for cold rolling should not be used for hot rolling, because they may crack from
thermal cycling (heat checking) and spelling (cracking or flaking of surface layers).
DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 8|CHAPTER 4
1.10. Lubricants
 Hot rolling of ferrous alloys usually is carried out without lubricants, although graphite
may be used.
 Water-based solutions are used to cool the rolls and to break up the scale on the rolled
material.
 Nonferrous alloys are hot rolled with a variety of compounded oils, emulsions, and fatty
acids. Cold rolling is carried out with water-soluble oils or low-viscosity lubricants, such
as mineral oils, emulsions, paraffin, and fatty oils.
1.11. Various Rolling Processes and Mills
1.11.1. Shape Rolling
 Products made by shape rolling
include construction shapes such as I-
beams, L-beams, and U-channels;
rails for railroad tracks; and round and
square bars and rods.

 Most of the principles that apply in flat rolling are also applicable to shape rolling.
1.11.2. Ring Rolling
 Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-
walled ring of larger diameter.
 Hot rolling process for large rings and cold rolling process for smaller rings.
 Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and rings for
pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery
 Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation, strengthening through cold working

Figure 4.4: (a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Thickness reduction results in
an increase in the part diameter. (b) Through (d) Examples of cross sections that can be formed
by ring rolling.

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 9|CHAPTER 4

1.11.3. Roll Forging
 Also called cross rolling
 The cross section of a round bar is shaped by passing it through a pair of rolls with profiled
grooves
 Roll forging is typically used to produce tapered shafts and leaf springs, table knives, and
hand tools; it also may be used as a preliminary forming operation, to be followed by other
forging processes

Figure 4.5: Roll-forging operation, also known as cross-rolling. Tapered leaf springs and knives
can be made by this process.
1.11.4. Skew Rolling
 A process similar to roll forging
 Typically used for making ball bearings. The balls
subsequently are ground and polished in special
machinery
1.11.5. Thread Rolling
 Thread rolling is used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them between two
dies.
 It is the most important commercial process for mass producing external threaded
components (e.g., bolts and screws).
 The thread dies are of two types:
o Flat dies: which reciprocate relative to each other.
o Round dies: in which rotate relative to each other to accomplish the rolling action.
 Lubrication is important for good surface finish and to minimize defects.
 Because of volume constancy in plastic deformation, a rolled thread requires a round stock
of smaller diameter to produce the same major diameter as that of a machined thread.

 Rolled threads have a grain-flow pattern that improves the strength of the thread, because
of the cold working involved.
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  Spur and helical gears also can be produced by processes similar to thread rolling.

Figure 4.6: (a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. Grain flow in (b) machined and (c) rolled
threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling of threads
imparts improved strength because of cold Working and favorable grain flow
Advantages of thread rolling:
1. Production rates in thread rolling can be high, ranging up to eight parts per second for small
bolts and screws
2. Better material utilization
3. Stronger threads due to work hardening
4. Smoother surface
5. Better fatigue resistance due to compressive stresses introduced by rolling
1.11.6. Tube rolling
 The diameter and thickness of tubes and pipe that are produced by
various processes can be reduced by tube rolling, using shaped rolls,
either with or without mandrels.
 In the pilger mill, the tube and an internal mandrel undergo a
reciprocating motion, and the tube is advanced and rotated
periodically
 Steel tubing of 265 mm in diameter has been produced by this
process.
1.11.7. Rotary tube piercing
 Rotary tube piercing is used to make long, thick-walled seamless tubing.
 When a round bar is subjected to radial compression, tensile stresses develop at the center
of the roll. When the rod is subjected to cyclic compressive stresses, a cavity begins to
form at the center of the rod.
 The mandrel is held in place by a long rod, although techniques also have been developed
whereby the mandrel remains in place without using a rod

Figure 4.7: Cavity formation in a solid, round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube piercing
process for making seamless pipe and tubing
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2. FORGING
Forging: is a deformation process in which the work is compressed between two dies, using either
impact or gradual pressure to form the part
 A forging machine that applies an impact load is called a forging hammer, while one
that applies gradual pressure is called a forging press.
 Forgings generally are subjected to additional finishing operations, such as heat treatment
to modify properties and machining to obtain accurate final dimensions and a good surface
finish.
 The finishing operations can be minimized by precision forging, which is an important
example of net-shape or near-net-shape forming processes
2.1. Types of forging based on the Homologous temperature
1- Forging at room temperature (cold forging)
 Cold forging requires higher forces, because of the higher strength of the workpiece
material
 The workpiece material must possess sufficient ductility at room temperature to
undergo the necessary deformation without cracking
 Cold forged parts have a good surface finish and dimensional accuracy
2- Forging at elevated temperatures (warm or hot forging)
 Hot forging requires lower forces
 The dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the parts are not as good as in cold
forging
2.2. Classification of forging processes based on the forging Die
1- Open-die forging: the work is compressed between two flat (or almost flat) dies, thus
allowing the metal to flow without constraint in a lateral direction relative to the die
surfaces
2- Impression-die forging: the die surfaces contain a shape or impression that is imparted to
the work during compression, thus constraining metal flow to a significant degree
 In this type of operation, a portion of the work metal flows beyond the die
impression to form flash
 Flash is excess metal that must be trimmed off later
3- Flashless forging: the work is completely constrained within the die and no excess flash is
produced.
 The volume of the starting workpiece must be controlled very closely so that it
matches the volume of the die cavity

Figure 4.8: Three types of forging operation illustrated by cross-sectional sketches: (a) open-die
forging, (b) impression-die forging, and (c) flashless forging
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 Table 4.1: General Characteristics of Forging Processes

2.3. Open-die Forging

The simplest case of open-die forging involves compression of a workpart of cylindrical cross
section between two flat dies, much in the manner of a compression test.
 This forging operation, known as upsetting or upset forging, reduces the height of the work
and increases its diameter
 Part sizes may range from very small (the size of nails, pins, and bolts) to very large (up to
23 m, long shafts for ship propellers)

Figure 4.9: (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform deformation of
the billet without friction. (c) Deformation with friction. Note barreling of the billet caused by
friction forces at the billet-die interfaces
 Because constancy of volume is maintained, any reduction in height increases the diameter
of the forged part. Note that the workpiece is deformed uniformly under ideal conditions.
 In actual operations, there is friction, and the part develops a barrel shape (Fig. 4.9c)-a
deformation mode also known as pancaking.
Barreling is caused primarily by frictional forces that oppose the outward flow of the workpiece
at the die interfaces and thus can be minimized by using an effective lubricant
 Barreling also can develop in upsetting hot workpieces
between cold dies
 Barreling from thermal effects can be reduced or eliminated by
using heated dies or thermal barriers, such as glass cloth, at the
die-workpiece interfaces

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2.4. Analysis of Cold Open-Die Forging
When open-die forging is carried out under ideal conditions of no friction between work and die
surfaces, the true strain experienced by the work during the process can be:

Where, ho = starting height of the work, mm; and h = the height at some intermediate point in the
process, mm. At the end of the compression stroke, h = its final value hf, and the true strain
reaches its maximum value
The force required to continue the compression at any given height h during the process can be
obtained by multiplying the corresponding cross-sectional area by the flow stress:

Where, F = force, N; A = cross-sectional area of the part, mm2; and Yf = flow stress corresponding
to the strain given by the previous equation, MPa
 Area A continuously increases during the operation as height is reduced
 Flow stress Yf also increases as a result of work hardening, except when the metal is
perfectly plastic (e.g., in hot working). In this case, the strain-hardening exponent n = 0,
and flow stress Yf equals the metal’s yield strength Y
A shape factor, Kf, is used to account for effects of the D/h ratio and friction:

The shape factor is defined as:

Where, µ = coefficient of friction; D = workpart diameter or other dimension representing contact

length with die surface, mm; and h = workpart height, mm

Exercise 8:
A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a cold upset forging operation. The starting piece is 75 mm
in height and 50 mm in diameter. It is reduced in the operation to a height of 36 mm. The work
material has a flow curve defined by K = 350 MPa and n = 0.17. Assume a coefficient of friction
of 0.1. Determine the force as the process begins, at intermediate heights of 62 mm, 49 mm, and
at the final height of 36 mm

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Exercise 9:
A solid cylindrical slug made of 304 stainless steel is 150 mm in diameter and 100 mm high. It is
reduced in height by 50% at room temperature by open-die forging with flat dies. Assuming that
the coefficient of friction is 0.2, calculate the forging force at the end of the stroke.

2.5. Analysis of Hot Open-Die Forging

Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a perfectly plastic material, with strain
hardening exponent n = 0 and an additional phenomenon occurs during deformation, especially at
elevated temperatures (strain rate sensitivity)
Strain rate is defined as:

where 𝜺. true strain rate, m/s/m, or simply s–1; v the speed of deformation m/s and h instantaneous
height of the workpiece being deformed, m.
At the temperatures of hot working, flow stress depends on strain rate. The strain rate sensitivity
can be expressed by:

where Yf the flow stress MPa; C the strength constant (similar but not equal to the strength
coefficient in the flow curve equation), MPa; 𝜺. Strain rate and m the strain rate sensitivity
exponent.
The deformation force is:

The work done can be defined as:

Assuming constant strain rate, then the work is defined as:

The power average consumed in upsetting is:

Exercise 10:
The 302 9stainless steel cylinder of 172 mm diameter is hot upset at 1000°C to a height of 20 mm
by a platen moving at 20 mm/s. The work material has a flow curve defined by C = 170 MPa and
m = 0.1. Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.3. Graphite is used as a lubricant between the platens
and workpiece. Calculate the forging force.

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2.6. Open-Die forging Practice
Open-die hot forging is an important industrial process. Shapes generated by open-die operations
are simple; examples include shafts, disks, and rings.
2.7. Open-die forging processes
2.7.1. Fullering
Fullering is a forging operation performed to reduce the cross section and redistribute the metal
in a work part in preparation for subsequent shape forging.
 It is accomplished by dies with convex surfaces
 Fullering die cavities are often designed into multi-cavity impression dies, so that the
starting bar can be rough-formed before final shaping.
2.7.2. Edging
Edging is similar to fullering, except that the dies have concave surfaces.
2.7.3. Cogging
Cogging consists of a sequence of forging compressions along the length of a workpiece to reduce
cross section and increase length.
 Cogging is used in the steel industry to produce blooms and slabs from cast ingots using
open dies with flat or slightly contoured surfaces.
 The term incremental forging is sometimes used for this process.

Figure 4.11: Several open-die forging operations: (a) fullering, (b) edging, and (c) cogging
2.8. Impression-Die Forging
Impression-die forging is performed with dies that contain the inverse of the desired shape of the
part. The process is illustrated in a three-step sequence as shown in Figure 4.12.
 As the die closes to its final position, flash is formed by metal that flows beyond the die
cavity and into the small gap between the upper and lower dies
 The flash must be cut away from the part in a subsequent trimming operations
 Flash serves an important function during impression-die forging. As the flash begins to
form in the die gap, friction resists continued flow of metal into the gap, thus constraining
the bulk of the work material to remain in the die cavity
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  In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted because the thin flash cools quickly against
the die plates, thereby increasing its resistance to deformation. Restricting metal flow in
the gap causes the compression pressures on the part to increase significantly, thus forcing
the material to fill the sometimes intricate details of the die cavity to ensure a high-quality
product.

Figure 4.12: Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just prior to initial contact with raw
workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap
between die plates.
 Several forming steps are often required in impression-die forging
to transform the starting blank into the desired final geometry.
 Separate cavities in the die are needed for each step.
 The beginning steps are designed to redistribute the metal in the
work part to achieve a uniform deformation and desired
metallurgical structure in the subsequent steps.
 The final steps bring the part to its final geometry.

The force formula is the same as that in the open-die forging, but its interpretation is slightly
different:

Table 4.2 indicates the range of values of Kf for different part geometries. Obviously, the problem
of specifying the proper Kf value for a given work part limits the accuracy of the force estimate.
Table 4.2: Typical Kf values for various part shapes in impression-die and fleshless forging

Figure 4.13: Terminology for a conventional impression-die in forging

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Advantages of impression-die forging:
1. High production rate
2. Conservation of metal
3. Greater strength
4. Favorable grain orientation
Limitations of impression-die forging:
1. Not capable of close tolerances
2. Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features needed, such as holes, threads,
and mating surfaces that fit with other components
Impression-die forging with the following features is known as precision forging:
1. The capability to produce forgings with thinner sections,
2. The capability to produce forgings with more complex geometries,
3. Closer tolerances,
4. The virtual elimination of machining allowances.
 Common work metals used for precision forging include aluminum and titanium
 Some precision forging operations are accomplished without producing flash

Figure 4.14: Cross sections of (a) conventional and (b) precision forgings. Dashed lines in
(a) indicate subsequent machining required to make the conventional forging equivalent in
geometry to the precision forging. In both cases, flash extensions must be trimmed
2.9. Flashless Forging
In flashless forging process, the work volume must equal the space in the die cavity within a very
close tolerance.
 If the starting blank is too large, excessive pressures may cause damage to the die or press.
 If the blank is too small, the cavity will not be filled

Figure 4.15: Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final punch and die closure.
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  Because of the volume demands, flashless forging is best for part geometries that are
simple and symmetrical, and to work materials such as aluminum and magnesium and
their alloys.
 Flashless forging is often classified as a precision forging process.
 Forces in flashless forging reach values comparable to those in impression die forging
(considering the Kf values in Table 4.2).
Coining is a special application of closed-die forging in which fine details in the die are impressed
into the top and bottom surfaces of the work part.
 There is little flow of metal in coining
 The pressures required to reproduce the surface details in the die cavity are high, as
indicated by the value of Kf in Table 4.2
 A common application of coining is the stamping of coins, shown in Figure 4.16.
 The process is also used to provide good surface finish and dimensional accuracy on work
parts made by other operations

Figure 4.16: Coining operation: (1) start of cycle, (2) compression stroke, and (3) ejection of
finished part.

Figure 4.17: Comparison of metal grain flow in a part that is (a) hot-forged with finish
machining and (b) machined complete
2.10. Forging Hammers, Presses and Dies
Equipment used in forging consists of forging hammers or presses, and forging dies, which are the
special tooling used in these machines.
Auxiliary equipment is needed, such as furnaces to heat the work, mechanical devices to load
and unload the work, and trimming stations to cut away the flash in impression-die forging.

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2.10.1. Forging Hammers
Forging hammers (drop hammers) operate by applying an impact load
against the work and most frequently used for impression-die forging.
 The upper portion of the forging die is attached to the ram, and the
lower portion is attached to the anvil.
 Several blows of the hammer are often required to achieve the
desired change in shape.
 Drop hammers can be classified as:
o Gravity drop hammers: they achieve their energy by the falling weight of a heavy
ram. The force of the blow is determined by the height of the drop and the weight
of the ram.
o Power drop hammers: they accelerate the ram by pressurized air or steam. One of
the disadvantages is that a large amount of the impact energy is transmitted through
the anvil and into the floor of the building
2.10.2. Forging Presses
Presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden impact, to accomplish the forging operation
and they include:
1. Mechanical presses
2. Hydraulic presses
3. Screw presses
2.10.3. Forging Dies
The design of open dies is generally straight forward, because the dies are relatively simple in
shape. The following comments apply to impression dies and closed dies:
 Parting line: The parting line is the plane that divides the upper die from the lower die.
Called the flash line in impression-die forging. Its selection by the designer affects:
o Grain flow in the part
o Required load
o Flash formation
 Draft: Draft is the amount of taper on the sides of the part required to remove it from the
die. The term also applies to the taper on the sides of the die cavity.
o Typical draft angles are 3° on aluminum and magnesium parts and 5° to 7° on
steel parts.
o Draft angles on precision forgings are near zero.
 Webs and ribs: A web is a thin portion of the forging that is parallel to the parting line,
while a rib is a thin portion that is perpendicular to the parting line. These part features
cause difficulty in metal flow as they become thinner.
 Fillet and corner radii: Small radii tend to limit metal flow and increase stresses on die
surfaces during forging.
 Flash: Flash formation plays a critical role in impression-die forging by causing pressure
buildup inside the die to promote filling of the cavity.
 Gutter: permits excess metal to escape without causing extreme loads.

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2.11. Other Processes Related to Forging
i. Upsetting and Heading:
 Upsetting (also called upset forging) is a deformation operation in which a
cylindrical work part is increased in diameter and reduced in length.
 Heading is essentially an upsetting operation, usually performed on the end of a
round rod or wire in order to increase the cross section.
 Typical products are nails, bolt heads, screws, rivets, and various other fasteners
 Heading can be carried out cold, warm, or hot on special upset forging machines,
called headers or formers.
 The length to diameter ratio usually is limited to less than 3:1. If this ratio is higher,
the forged material tend to buckle.
 For bolts and screws, thread rolling is used to form the threads.

Figure 4.18: Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a) heading a nail using open dies,
(b) round head formed by punch, (c) and (d) heads formed by die, and (e) carriage bolt head
formed by punch and die.
ii. Swaging and Radial Forging: Swaging and radial forging are forging processes used to
reduce the diameter of a tube or solid rod.
 Swaging is often performed on the end of a workpiece to create a tapered section.
 The swaging process is accomplished by means of rotating dies that hammer a
workpiece radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies.
 A mandrel is sometimes required to control the shape and size of the internal
diameter of tubular parts
 In radial forging the dies do not rotate around the workpiece; instead, the work is
rotated as it feeds into the hammering dies.

Figure 4.19: (1) Swaging and radial forging dies. (2) Examples of parts made by swaging: (a)
reduction of solid stock, (b) tapering a tube, (c) swaging to form a groove on a tube, (d) pointing
of a tube, and (e) swaging of neck on a gas cylinder

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iii. Orbital Forging: In this process, deformation occurs by means
of a cone-shaped upper die that is simultaneously rolled and
pressed into the work part
 The operation is similar to the action of a mortar and
pestle used for crushing herbs and seeds.
 Although not in common use, typical components that
may be forged by this process are disk-shaped and
conical parts, such as bevel gears and gear blanks.
 The operation is relatively quiet, and parts can be formed
within 10 to 20 cycles of the orbiting die.
iv. Hubbing: Is a deformation process in which a hardened steel form is pressed into a soft
steel (or other soft metal) block.
 The process is often used to make mold cavities for plastic molding and die casting
 The force is applied through a hydraulic press on the hub (hardened steel)
 Hubbing followed by annealing to recover the work metal from strain hardening
 The advantage of hubbing in this application is that it is generally easier to machine
the positive form than the mating negative cavity. This advantage is needed when
more than one cavity is made in the die block

Figure 4.20: Hubbing: (1) before deformation and (2) as the process is completed. Note that the
excess material formed by the penetration of the hub must be machined away
v. Trimming: is an operation used to remove flash on the work part in impression-die forging.
 In most cases, trimming is accomplished by shearing in which a punch forces the
work through a cutting die, the blades for which have the profile of the desired part.
 Trimming is usually done while the work is still hot
 A separate trimming press is included at each forging hammer or press
 Trimming may be done by alternative methods, such as grinding or sawing

Figure 4.21: Trimming operation (shearing process).

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2.12. Forgeability of Metals
Forgeability is generally defined as the capability of a material to undergo deformation without
cracking. There are two simple tests for metals forgeability: upsetting and hot twist.
Table 4.3: Forgeability of various metals

Forgeability is based on the following considerations:

a. Ductility and strength of the material
b. Forging temperature required
c. Frictional behavior
d. The quality of the forgings produced
2.13. Forging Defects
In addition to surface cracks, defects can develop during forging as a result of the material flow
pattern in the die. For example:
 If there is an insufficient volume of material to fill the die cavity completely, the web may
buckle during forging and develop laps (Figure 4.22).

Figure 4.22: Laps formed by web buckling during forging; web thickness should be increased to
avoid this problem
 If the web is too thick, the excess material flows past the already formed portions of the
forging and develops internal cracks (Figure 4.23)

Figure 4.23: Internal defects caused by an oversized billet

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Internal defects develop from:
1. Radii in the forging-die cavity
2. Nonuniform deformation of the material in the die cavity
3. Temperature gradients throughout the workpiece during forging
4. Microstructural changes caused by phase transformations
Forging defects can cause the following failures:
a. Fatigue failures
b. Corrosion
c. Wear of the forged component
12.14. Forging Die Materials
 Most forging operations (particularly for large parts) are carried out at elevated
temperatures.
 Common die materials are tool and die steels containing chromium, nickel, molybdenum,
and vanadium.
General requirements for die materials therefore are:
a. Strength and toughness at elevated temperatures
b. Hardenability and ability to harden uniformly
c. Resistance to mechanical and thermal shock
d. Wear resistance, particularly resistance to abrasive wear, because of the presence of scale
in hot forging.
Die Failures
Failure of dies in manufacturing operations generally results from one or more of the following
causes:
a. Improper die design
b. Defective or improper selection of die material
c. Improper manufacturing and improper heat-treatment and finishing operations
d. Overheating and heat checking (i.e., cracking caused by temperature cycling)
e. Excessive wear
f. Overloading (i.e., excessive force on the die)
g. Improper alignment of the die components with respect to their movements
h. Misuse
i. Improper handling of the die

Table 4.4.: Typical speed ranges of forging equipment

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3. EXTRUSION
Extrusion is a compression process in which the work
material is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a part with a cross-sectional shape that is the
same as the shape of the die opening.
 Typical products made by extrusion are:
o Railings for sliding doors
o Window frames
o Tubing having various cross sections
o Aluminum ladder frames
o Numerous structural and architectural shapes.
 Extrusions can be cut into desired lengths, which then become discrete parts, such as
brackets, gears, and coat hangers.
 Commonly extruded materials are:
o Aluminum, copper, steel, magnesium, and lead
o Other metals and alloys also can be extruded, with various levels of difficulty.

Figure 4.24: Extrusions and examples of products made by sectioning off extrusions
Advantages of the modern extrusion process:
1. A variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot extrusion
2. Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm extrusion
3. Fairly close tolerances are possible, especially in cold extrusion
4. In some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material is created
5. Extrusion can be economical for large as well as short production runs
3.1. Types of Extrusion Processes
a. Extrusion processes based on physical configuration type:
1. Direct extrusion
2. Indirect extrusion
3. Impact extrusion
b. Extrusion processes based on working temperature:
1. Cold extrusion
2. Warm extrusion
3. Hot extrusion
c. Extrusion processes based on the product type:
1. Continuous process
2. Discrete process

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3.2. Direct Extrusion
 Direct extrusion also called forward extrusion
 As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet remains that cannot be forced
through die opening
 This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from extruded product by cutting it
just beyond the die exit
 Starting billet cross section usually round, but final shape is determined by die opening

Figure 4.25: (a) Direct extrusion process and (b) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-
hollow cross section
 There is a significant friction exists between the work surface and the walls of the
container, which increases the ram force in direct extrusion
 A dummy block is often used between the ram and the work billet in hot extrusion to
reduce defects in extruded products
 The diameter of the dummy block is slightly smaller than the billet diameter, so that a
narrow ring of work metal is left in the container, leaving the final product free of oxides
3.3. Indirect Extrusion
 Indirect extrusion also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion
 The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the container
 There is no friction at the container walls, and the ram force is therefore lower than in
direct extrusion
 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by:
o The lower rigidity of the hollow ram
o The difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it exits the die
o The length of the extruded part is limited

Figure 4.26: Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross section

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3.4. Impact extrusion
 The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high-speed cold extrusion
 It is used to make individual components
 Impacting can be carried out as forward extrusion,
backward extrusion, or combinations of these
 Products made by this process include toothpaste tubes
and battery cases
 The high-speed characteristics of impacting permit large
reductions and high production rates
3.5. Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
 Metals that are typically extruded hot or cold include aluminum, copper, magnesium, zinc,
tin, and their alloys.
 Steel alloys are usually extruded hot, although the more ductile grades are sometimes
cold-extruded (e.g., low carbon steels and stainless steel).
 Aluminum is probably the most ideal metal for extrusion (hot and cold), and many
commercial aluminum products are made by this process (structural shapes, door and
window frames, etc.).
3.5.1. Hot extrusion
 Hot extrusion involves prior heating of the billet to a temperature above its
recrystallization temperature in order to obtain the following advantages:
o Reduction strength and increasing ductility of the metal
o Permitting more extreme size reductions and more complex shapes to be achieved
in the process
o Reduction of ram force
o Increased ram speed
o Reduction of grain flow characteristics in the final product
 Cooling of the billet as it contacts the container walls is a problem, and isothermal extrusion
is sometimes used to overcome this problem.
 Lubrication is critical in hot extrusion for certain metals (e.g., steels)
 Glass is sometimes used as a lubricant in hot extrusion
o Glass reduces friction
o Provides effective thermal insulation between the billet and the extrusion container
3.5.2. Cold extrusion
 The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high-speed cold extrusion
 Some important advantages of cold extrusion are:
o Increased strength due to strain hardening
o Close tolerances
o Improved surface finish
o Absence of oxide layers
o High production rates
o Eliminating the need for heating the starting billet

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3.6. Continuous vs. Discrete Processing
 Continuous extrusion produces very long sections in one cycle.
 These operations are limited by the size of the billet that can be loaded into the extrusion
container.
 In discrete extrusion, a single part is produced in each extrusion cycle.
 Impact extrusion is an example of the discrete processing case.
3.7. Analysis of Extrusion
The extrusion ratio, also called the reduction ratio, is defined
as:

where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area of the starting billet, mm2; and Af = final cross-
sectional area of the extruded section, mm2.
 The ratio applies for both direct and indirect extrusion
The true strain in extrusion can be calculated as:

Under the assumption of ideal deformation (no friction and no redundant work), the pressure
applied by the ram to compress the billet through the die opening can be computed as follows:

where

The effect of friction is to increase the strain experienced by the metal. Thus, the actual pressure
is greater than that given by previous equation, which assumes no friction. The following
empirical equation is for estimating extrusion strain (Johnson Formula):

where ϵx = extrusion strain; a and b are empirical constants for a given die angle. Typical values
of these constants are a = 0.8 and b = 1.2 to 1.5.
The ram pressure to perform indirect extrusion (no friction) can be estimated as follows:

̅ 𝒇 is calculated based on ideal strain equation: 𝝐 = 𝒍𝒏𝒓𝒙

Where 𝒀
In direct extrusion (friction between the container walls and the billet exists), the ram pressure
becomes greater than for indirect extrusion. The following expression calculates the additional
pressure due to friction:

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 𝑫𝟐
where pf = additional pressure required to overcome friction, MPa; 𝝅( 𝒐⁄𝟒) = billet cross
sectional area, mm2; μ = coefficient of friction at the container wall; pc = pressure of the billet
against the container wall, MPa; and πDoL = area of the interface between billet and container
wall, mm2.
 The right-hand side of this equation indicates the billet–container friction force.
 The left-hand side gives the additional ram force to overcome that friction.
In the worst case, sticking occurs at the container wall so that friction stress equals the shear yield
strength of the work metal:

𝑌̅𝑓
where Ys = shear yield strength, MPa. If it is assumed that 𝑌𝑠 = ⁄ , then pf reduces to the
2
following:

The ram pressure in direct extrusion can be calculated as follows:

Note that p is reduced as the remaining billet length decreases during the process. Typical plots of
ram pressure as a function of ram stroke for direct and indirect extrusion are presented in Figure
4.27.

Figure 4.27: Typical plots of ram pressure versus ram stroke (and remaining billet length) for
direct and indirect extrusion.
 With good lubrication, ram pressures would be lower than values calculated by this
equation because friction would be reduced.
Ram force in indirect or direct extrusion is simply:

Power required to carry out the extrusion operation is simply

where P = power, J/s; F = ram force, N; and v = ram velocity, m/s

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Exercise 10:
A billet 75 mm long and 25 mm in diameter is to be extruded in a direct extrusion operation with
extrusion ratio rx = 4.0. The extrudate has a round cross section. The die angle (half-angle) = 90°.
The work metal has a strength coefficient = 415 MPa, and strain-hardening exponent = 0.18. Use
the Johnson formula with a = 0.8 and b = 1.5 to estimate extrusion strain. Determine the pressure
applied to the end of the billet as the ram moves forward.

The previous equations for ram pressure apply to a circular die orifice. A complex cross section,
requires a higher pressure and greater force than a circular shape. The effect of the die orifice shape
can be assessed by the die shape factor, defined as the ratio of the pressure required to extrude a
cross section of a given shape relative to the extrusion pressure for a round cross section of the
same area. The shape factor can be expressed as follows:

where Kx = die shape factor in extrusion; Cc = the perimeter of a circle whose area is equal to
that of the extruded cross section, mm; and Cx = perimeter of the extruded shape, mm.
 A circular shape is the simplest shape, with a value of Kx = 1.0
 Hollow, thin-walled sections have higher shape factors and are more difficult to extrude
For shapes other than round, the corresponding expression for indirect extrusion is:

and for direct extrusion,

3.8. Process Parameters

 Extrusion ratio, rx, usually range from about 10 to 100.
o rx = 400 for softer nonferrous metals and lower for less ductile materials
o The ratio usually has to be at least 4 to deform the material plastically through the
bulk of the workpiece.
 Extruded products are less than 7.5 m long, because of the difficulty in handling greater
lengths, but they can be as long as 30 m.
 Ram speeds range up to 0.5 m/s.
o Lower speeds are preferred for aluminum, magnesium, and copper
o Higher speeds are preferred for steels, titanium, and refractory alloys.
 Dimensional tolerances in extrusion are usually in the range from ±0.25 to 2.5 mm, and
they increase with increasing cross section.
 Most extruded parts with small cross sections require straightening and twisting. This is
accomplished by stretching and twisting in a hydraulic stretcher equipped with jaws.
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3.9. Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
3.9.1. Hot Extrusion
For metals and alloys that do not have sufficient ductility at room temperature, or in order to reduce
the forces required, extrusion is carried out at elevated temperatures.
Table 4.5: Typical Extrusion Temperature Ranges for Various Metals and Alloys

 Die materials used for hot extrusion include tool and alloy steels. Important properties of
these die materials include:
o High wear resistance
o high hot hardness
o High thermal conductivity to remove heat from the process

Figure 4.28: Typical extrusion-die configurations: (a) die for nonferrous metals; (b) die for
ferrous metals
 Square dies (shear dies) are used in extruding nonferrous metals, especially aluminum.
Square dies generate dead-metal zones, which produce extrusions with bright finishes.
 In hollow sections, wall thickness is usually limited to:
o 1 mm for aluminum, 3 mm for carbon steels and 5 mm for stainless steels

Figure 4.29: Extrusion of a seamless tube (a) using an internal (b) using a spider die
 Lubrication is important in hot extrusion because of its effects on
o Material flow during extrusion
o Surface finish and integrity
o Product quality
o Extrusion forces
 Glass is an excellent lubricant for steels, stainless steels, and high-temperature metals and
alloys.
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3.9.2. Cold Extrusion
Cold extrusion is used widely for components in automobiles, motorcycles, bicycles, and
appliances and in transportation and farm equipment.
 The die hardness is between 58 and 62 HRC
 The punch hardness usually ranges between 60 and 65 HRC
o Punches must possess sufficient strength, toughness, resistance to wear and fatigue
failure
 Lubrication is critical with steels, because of the possibility of sticking (seizure) between
the workpiece and the tooling.
 The most effective means of lubrication is the application of a phosphate-conversion
coating on the workpiece, followed by a coating of soap or wax
Cold extrusion has the following advantages over hot extrusion:
1. Improved mechanical properties resulting from work hardening, provided that the heat
generated by plastic deformation and friction does not recrystallize the extruded metal.
2. Good control of dimensional tolerances, reducing the need for subsequent machining or
finishing operations.
3. Improved surface finish, due partly to the absence of an oxide film and provided that
lubrication is effective.
4. Production rates and costs that are competitive with those of other methods of producing
the same part, such as machining.

Two processes are associated with cold extrusion

process:
1- Impact Extrusion
2- Hydrostatic Extrusion for brittle materials
3.10. Extrusion Defects
3.10.1. Centerburst
The center of the extruded product can develop cracks, called center cracking, center-burst,
arrowhead fracture, or chevron cracking.
 These cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic
tensile stress at the centerline in the deformation
zone in the die, a situation similar to the necked
region in a tensile-test specimen.
 They appear on the inside surfaces of tubes
 The tendency for center cracking:
a) Increases with increasing die angle
b) Increases with increasing amount of impurities
c) Decreases with increasing extrusion ratio and friction

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3.10.2. Piping
Is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the billet and is associated with direct
extrusion. Other names given to this defect include tailpipe and fishtailing.
 The use of a dummy block whose diameter is slightly less than that of the
billet helps to avoid piping
 Another method is to machine the billet’s surface prior to extrusion, so that
scale and surface impurities are removed
3.10.3. Surface Cracking
This defect results from high work part temperatures that cause cracks to develop at the surface.
 They often occur when extrusion speed is too high, leading to high strain
rates and associated heat generation.
 Other factors contributing to surface cracking are high friction and surface
chilling of high-temperature billets in hot extrusion.
 These defects occur especially in aluminum, magnesium, and zinc alloys,
although they may also occur in high-temperature alloys.
 This situation can be avoided by lowering the billet temperature and the
extrusion speed
 Surface cracking also may occur at lower temperatures, where it has been
attributed to periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die land

Figure 4.30: (a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die angle on ram force
4. DRAWING
Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of a
bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die
opening, as in the Figure.
The difference between drawing and extrusion is that in
extrusion the material is pushed through a die, whereas
in drawing it is pulled through it.
 Tensile stresses are obvious in drawing
 Compression also plays a significant role because the metal is squeezed down as it passes
through the die opening
 The deformation that occurs in drawing is sometimes referred to as indirect compression

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Rod and wire products cover a very wide range of applications, including:
Shafts for power transmission Machine and structural components
Blanks for bolts and rivets Electrical wiring
Cables Tension-loaded structural members
Welding electrodes Springs
Paper clips Spokes for bicycle wheels
Stringed musical instruments
Classification of drawing processes based on the work size:
1- Wire drawing: This term applies to small diameter stock
 Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm are possible in wire drawing
 Wire is drawn from coils consisting of several hundred meters of wire and is passed
through between 4 and 12 drawing dies
 Continuous drawing operation (coils are connected using butt-welding)
2- Bar drawing: This term is used for large diameter bar and rod stock
 It is generally accomplished as a single-draft operation where the stock is pulled
through one die opening
 The bar is in the form of a straight cylindrical piece rather than a coil, which limits
the work length
 Batch drawing operation
In wire drawing operation, the change in size of the work is usually given by the area reduction,
defined as follows:

where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original area of work, mm2; and Af = final area, mm2.
Area reduction is often expressed as a percentage.
In bar drawing, rod drawing, and in drawing of large-diameter wire for upsetting and heading
operations, the term draft is used to denote the before and after difference in diameter of the
processed work:

where d = draft, mm; Do = original diameter of work, mm; and Df = final work diameter, mm.
4.1. Drawing Analysis
If no friction or redundant work occurred in drawing, true strain could be determined as follows:

The stress that results from this ideal deformation is given by:

, and

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Because friction is present in drawing and the work metal experiences inhomogeneous
deformation, the actual stress is very large. The equation suggested to calculate the drawing stress
is as following:

where σd = draw stress, MPa; μ = die-work coefficient of friction; α = die angle (half-angle); and
ϕ is a factor that accounts for inhomogeneous deformation, which is determined as follows for a
round cross section:

where D = average diameter of work during drawing, mm; and Lc = contact length of the work
with the drawing die, mm. Values of D and Lc can be determined from the following:

The corresponding draw force is then the area of the drawn cross section multiplied by the draw
stress:

where F = draw force, N; and the other terms are defined above. The power required in a drawing
operation is the draw force multiplied by exit velocity of the work.

Exercise 11:
Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle = 15°. Starting diameter is 2.5 mm and
final diameter = 2.0 mm. The coefficient of friction at the work–die interface = 0.07. The metal
has a strength coefficient K = 205 MPa and a strain-hardening exponent n = 0.20. Determine the
draw stress and draw force in this operation.

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4.2. Maximum Reduction per Pass
In wire drawing, multiple steps are usually needed to achieve the desired reduction in wire
drawing.
 If the reduction is large enough, draw stress will exceed the yield strength of the exiting
metal
 For wire drawing to be successful, maximum draw stress must be less than the yield
strength of the exiting metal
Under ideal deformation conditions (n=0, no friction and no redundant work), the maximum
drawing stress can be calculated as follows:

This means that the strain reached to the maximum, 𝝐𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏. For this to occur, the term 𝑨𝒐 /𝑨𝒇 =
𝟏/(𝟏 − 𝒓) must equal the natural logarithm base e (2.7183). Then, the maximum possible area
ratio is:

And the maximum possible reduction is:

In practice, draw reductions per pass are quite below the theoretical limit. Reductions of 0.50 for
single-draft bar drawing and 0.30 for multiple-draft wire drawing seem to be the upper limits in
industrial operations. Drawing speeds are as high as 50 m/s for very fine wire.

Exercise 12:
Wire stock of initial diameter = 3.175 mm is drawn through two dies each providing a 0.20 area
reduction. The starting metal has a strength coefficient = 276 Mpa and a strain hardening exponent
= 0.15. Each die has an entrance angle of 12°, and the coefficient of friction at the work die
interface is estimated to be 0.10. The motors driving the capstans at the die exits can each deliver
1.50 hp at 90% efficiency. Determine the maximum possible speed of the wire as it exits the second
die.

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4.3. Drawing Practice
Drawing is usually performed as a cold-working operation. It is most frequently used to produce
round cross sections, but squares and other shapes are also drawn.
 Wire drawing produces commercial products such as electrical wire and cable; wire stock
for fences, coat hangers, and shopping carts; and rod stock to produce nails, screws, rivets,
springs, and other hardware items.
 Bar drawing is used to produce metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes.
Advantages of drawing in these applications include:
1. Close dimensional control
2. Good surface finish
3. Improved strength and hardness
4. Adaptability to economical batch or mass production.

Figure 4.31: Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars

Figure 4.32: Continuous multistage wire drawing typically used to produce copper wire for
electrical wiring
4.4. Drawing die
Drawing dies are made of tool steels or cemented carbides. Dies for high-speed wire drawing
operations frequently use inserts made of diamond (both synthetic and natural) for the wear
surfaces.
The drawing die, shown in Figure 4.33, shows four regions: (1) entry, (2) approach angle, (3)
bearing surface (land), and (4) back relief.

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  The entry region is usually a bell-shaped mouth that does not contact the work.
o It funnels the lubricant into the die
o It prevents scoring of work and die surfaces
 The approach is where the drawing process occurs; it is cone-shaped with an angle (half-
angle) normally ranging from about 6° to 20°. The proper angle varies according to work
material.
 The bearing surface, or land, determines the size of the final drawn stock.
 The back relief is the exit zone, which is provided with a back relief angle (half-angle) of
about 30°.

Figure 4.33: Illustration of the drawing die shows the main four regions
4.5. Preparation of the Work
Prior to drawing, the beginning stock must be properly prepared. This involves three steps:
1. Annealing:
 Annealing is required to increase the ductility of the stock to accept deformation
during drawing
 Annealing is sometimes needed between steps in continuous drawing
2. Cleaning:
 Cleaning is required to prevent damage of the work surface and drawing die.
 It involves removal of surface contaminants (e.g., scale and rust) by means of
chemical pickling or shot blasting.
 In some cases, prelubrication of the work surface is accomplished subsequent to
cleaning
3. Pointing:
 Pointing involves the reduction in diameter of the starting end of the stock so that
it can be inserted through the draw die to start the process.
 This is usually accomplished by swaging, rolling, or turning.
4.6. Drawing Defects
Typical defects in a drawn rod or wire are: (1) center cracking, (2) seams (which are longitudinal
scratches or folds in the material), (3) scratches and (4) die marks.
 For light reductions, compressive residual stresses generate on the surface and improve
fatigue life
 For high reductions, tensile residual stresses generate on the surface and cause stress-
corrosion cracking.

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