Local Area Networks

CS 55 Computer Networks

Topic 5

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Local Area Networks (LANs)

(Study Map)
Introduction
Review of Data Communications Concepts Review of Basic LAN Concepts

Hardware
LAN Media Topologies and Media Access Control LAN Hardware

Software
LAN System Software Client/Server Architecture
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The Ethernet Local Area Network

I came to work one day at MIT and the computer had been stolen, so I called DEC to break the news to them that this $30,000 computer that they'd lent me was gone. They thought this was the greatest thing that ever happened, because it turns out that I had in my possession the first computer small enough to be stolen! Robert Metcalfe on the trials and tribulations of inventing the Ethernet.
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The Ethernet Local Area Network

Robert Metcalfe was a member of the research staff for Xerox, at their Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) where some of the first personal computers were being made. Metcalfe was asked to build a networking system for PARC's computers. Xerox's motivation for the computer network was that they were also building the world's first laser printer and wanted all of the PARC's computers to be able to print with this printer.
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The Ethernet Local Area Network

Metcalfe had two challenges: the network had to be fast enough to drive the very fast new laser printer; and it had to connect hundreds of computers within the same building. Never before had hundreds of computers been in the same building -- at that time no one had more than one, two or maybe three computers in operation on any one premise.
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The Ethernet Local Area Network

The press has often stated that ethernet was invented on May 22, 1973, when Metcalfe wrote a memo to his bosses stating the possibilities of ethernet's potential, but Metcalfe claims ethernet was actually invented very gradually over a period of several years. In 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs (Metcalfe's assistant) published a paper titled, "Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching For Local Computer Networks."
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The Ethernet Local Area Network

Metcalfe left Xerox in 1979 to promote the use of personal computers and local area networks (LANs). He successfully convinced Digital Equipment, Intel, and Xerox Corporations to work together to promote ethernet as a standard. Now an international computer industry standard, ethernet is the most widely installed LAN protocol.
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End of the Story

Not yet we have a compressed lecture class today hmmm ...

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Review of Data Communications Concepts

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Section Preview
In this section we will study:

The requirements for communication What constitutes a network The various types of networks in common use today The OSI Reference Model Some of the basic terminology of data communications and networks
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Essential Elements of Communication

A message A sender A receiver A medium

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Understanding the Message

In computer systems, data can be represented by any of several different codes, the two most common being:
the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) the Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
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Security
Sensitive data like your credit card number or other secret data should be safeguarded during transmission. The most common mechanism for protecting data during transmission is encryption.
Encryption transforms plain text into an (presumably) undecipherable form called cipher-text.

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Two Types of Networks

Terminal Network
consists of a single host computer with attached terminals the host computer does all or most of the processing, and the terminals imply act as input/output (I/O) devices through which a person gains access to the hosts applications.

Network of Computers
two or more nodes connected by a data communications medium. individual nodes may have terminals attached to them a single node on this network can look just like the terminal network
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Three Network Subtypes

Local Area Network (LAN) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Wide Area Network (WAN)

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LAN/MAN/WAN Comparison
LAN Distance
Limitedtypically up to 2,500 meters or 2 miles
Hightypically in excess of 10 Mbps 10,100 and 1,000 are standard Locally owned twisted-pair wires, fiber optic cable, wireless (not satellite)

MAN
Limitedtypically up to 200 kilometers or 100 miles
Hightypically 100 Mbps

WAN
Unlimited

Speed

Slowerusually 1.5 Mbps

Media

Locally owned and common carrier twisted-pair wires, fiber optic cable

Locally owned and common carrier twisted-pair wires, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, wireless to include satellite Can be any, but most are desktop computers

Nodes

Can be any, but most are desktop computers

Can be any, but most are desktop computers and minicomputers

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The OSI Reference Model

The problem of network interconnection is so important that the ISO created the OSI Reference Model that describes the functions a generic network needs to provide. The OSI Reference Model has become the basis for many data communications standards.
Because these standards are placed in the public domain, they are called open standards and lead to open systems.

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OSI Peer Layer Communication

Processor 1 Processor 2

Application Presentation Session

Application Presentation Session

Transport
Network Data Link Physical
Logical Path

Transport
Network Data Link Physical
Physical Path
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OSI Reference Model Formatting

Trans-Id Data Date=dd/mm/yy
(a) Application Layer

Trans-Id Data Date=mm-dd-yyyy

(b) Presentation Layer

ID Length Trans-Id Data Date=mm-dd-yyyy

(c) Session Layer

TSAP ChkSum ID Length Trans-Id Data Date=mm-dd-yyyy (d) Transport Layer

Address Seq Nbr TSAP ChkSum ID Length Trans-Id Data Date=mm-dd-yyyy

(e) Network Layer

Header Address Seq Nbr TSAP ChkSum ID Length Trans-Id Data Date=mm-dd-yyyy Chksum (f) Data Link Layer

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The OSI Model at Work

Application Layer
The application on Node A builds a record with a transaction identifier, the number of the account to be updated, the date and time of the transaction, and the amount to be deducted.

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translating from one format to another.

Session Layer
The session layers major functions are to set up and perhaps monitor a set of dialogue rules by which the two applications can communicate and to bring a session to an orderly conclusion.

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The OSI Model at Work (cont.)

Transport Layer
The transport layer is the first of the OSI layers responsible for actually transmitting the data.

Network Layer
The network layer provides accounting and routing functions.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for data delineation, error detection,and logical control of the link.

Physical Layer
The physical layer does not append anything to the message. It simply accepts the message from the data link layer and translates the bits into signals on the medium.
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Receiving the Message

1. The message is passed over the link connecting Nodes A and X. 2. The message is passed to the data link layer in Node X. The message is checked for transmission errors, the PDU information applied by As data link layer is removed, and the message is sent to Xs network layer. 3. Xs network layer records the accounting information for the message and then strips off the network layer protocol data and examines the destination address. The destination is not Node X in this case, so the network layer consults its network routing table and determines the next link on the path to Node M. Xs network layer affixes the proper network layer protocol data and sends the message to Node Xs data link layer.
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Receiving the Message (cont.)

4. Node Xs data link layer creates its PDU and sends the message to Node M. 5. Node Ms data link layer receives the message, strips off Node Xs data link layer protocol data, checks for transmission errors, and passes the data up to Node Ms network layer. 6. Node Ms network layer gathers accounting data, strips off the network layer protocol data, and fins that the message is destined for an application in this node. 7. The message is passed up to Ms transport layer, where the sequence number is checked to ensure that no messages have been lost. The transport layer protocol data is removed.

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Receiving the Message (cont.)

8. The message arrives at the session layer, where relevant protocol data is examined and remove. 9. The message arrives at Node Ms presentation layer, where appropriate action is taken. 10.The message arrives at the application, where it is acted on.

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General Network Implementations: LANs

A LAN services a limited geographic area at high speeds usually 10 million bits per second or higher. All components of the LAN are commonly owned by the organization that uses it. The nodes in many of todays LANs are desktop systems like personal computers. Henceforth, we will also use the terms workstations, clients, and servers in referring to LAN nodes. A workstation is used here to represent a LAN users computer; other terms used in referring to a workstation are client and node. A server is a network node that is dedicated to providing services to client nodes.

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General Network Implementations: MANs

A MAN (metropolitan area network) is a highspeed network covering wider distances than LAN. A MAN spans distances of approximately 100 miles; therefore, it is suitable for connecting devices and LANs in a metropolitan area. MAN speeds are typically 100 Mbps or higher. The most commonly implemented MAN is the fiber distributed data interface (FDDI). It operates at 100 Mbps over fiber optic cable for distances up to 200 kilometers.
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General Network Implementations: WANs

A WAN is the oldest type of network. WANs generally span a wide geographic area like a state, province, country, or multiple countries. However, some WANs are confined to a limited geographic area, like a LAN. A WAN in a limited geographic area could be easily extended over a wide area using the same technologies. The same is not true of a LAN.

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General Network Implementations: VANs

A VAN is a network owned by a communications utility that sells the services of the network to other companies. A communications utility that owns a VAN provides connectivity to multiple locations. The value added by the communications utility is the maintenance and management of the communications circuits.

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General Network Implementations: Enterprise Networks

An enterprise network is an organizations complete network. With the advent of LANs, many companies installed departmental LANs to improve the productivity of work groups. Soon, these companies realized that there was a benefit to having users on one LAN communicate with users or applications on other LANs or on the WAN, and the various networks were connected together to form one corporate-wide network, the enterprise network.
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General Network Implementations: The Internet

An internet (with a lowercase i) is the interconnection of two or more networks. An enterprise networks just described is an example of an internet. The Internet (with an uppercase I) is a specific instance of an internet. The Internet is a global network of networks. The Internet is made up of hundreds of networks, thousands of nodes, and millions of users throughout most countries of the world.

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General Network Implementations: Intranets

An intranet is an organizations private Web. Companies have found that WWW capabilities can improve the information flow and availability in a company. Companies may use an intranet rather than publishing on the Internet because the information being provided is intended for corporate use only and not for the public at large.

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Review of Basic Local Area Networks Concepts

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Section Preview
In this section we will study:

Reasons organizations use networks Popular network applications Distinguishing features of LANs Situations in which a LAN can be useful Added management responsibilities when using a LAN LAN selection criteria
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Why Use LANs?

Resource Sharing
The need to share resources is still one of the primary reasons for using a network. Dedicating resources (disk drives, tape drives, printers, data, application programs, scanners, etc.) to each user is expensive. In a network, some or all of these resources may be shared.

Communication
We use data communications networks for communications, but the objects that are communicating are not always people. A person-to-person communication may be an electronic conversation with the two parties exchanging messages in real time. An application-to-application dialogue may be the transfer of a file from one node to another.
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Why Use LANs? (cont.)

Management Control
A LAN can help standardize the microcomputer environment. Application standards can be set up more easily in a network because most application programsfor example, word processors and spreadsheet programs can be installed on one or more network nodes called servers. LANs can also help control computer viruses. A diskless workstation, as the name implies, has no local disk drives. This reduces the ways in which a virus can be introduced.
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Why Use LANs? (cont.)

Cost Effectiveness
The ability to share resources has a direct impact on an organizations expenses. If users can share hardware, less hardware is needed. The less obvious cost effectiveness comes from the ability of users to communicate and thus improve their productivity.

Downsizing
In some companies, LANs have been used to downsize the data processing hardware, software, and personnel requirements.
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Why Use LANs? (cont.)

New Application Software
One of the newer application technologies associated with networks is called groupwareapplications oriented toward improving the productivity of a group of people working together. Groupware automates work functions that require the communication and collaboration of two or more individuals. These tools raise office productivity and make LANs even more cost effective.

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Application Software: Personal Productivity Applications

Applications that allow users to make more effective use of their microcomputers on a LAN include:

Word Processing and Desktop Publishing

It is reasonable to assume that future versions will allow several users to pull out sections of a single document; allow one user to update a document and let others concurrently view but not change it; and allow users to work concurrently on the same document and view or edit the document in concert.

Spreadsheets
Using spreadsheets on a LAN, users can easily share templates, and multiple users can access, modify, and print completed spreadsheets. A LAN can provide the setting for widespread sharing. At the same time, the LAN can also provide protection against unauthorized changes to spreadsheets.
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Application Software: Personal Productivity Applications (cont.)

Applications that allow users to make more effective use of their microcomputers on a LAN include:

Database Management
A database management system (DBMS) gives you the ability to define, use, and manage data. With LA-oriented databases, users share the database. This reduces the amount of redundant data storage that occurs when individuals maintain their own databases on stand-alone systems.

Presentation Services
Graphics hardware and software can be rather expensive. A LAN allows these expensive resources to be shared, providing a costeffective way of distributing graphics capabilities.

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Application Software: Workgroup Applications

Applications that allow users to make more effective use of their microcomputers on a LAN include:

Electronic Mail
Todays e-mail systems allow correspondents to exchange communications containing text, graphics, and voice images in batch or real-time mode. For many companies, e-mail has become a primary mode of communications.

Electronic Appointment Calendars

One user can consult other users appointment calendars to find a time at which each user is available for a meeting.

Electronic Filing Cabinets

E-mail and other machine-readable documents can be stored in disk folders that are equivalent to file folders in conventional filing cabinets.
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Application Software: Workgroup Applications (cont.)

Applications that allow users to make more effective use of their microcomputers on a LAN include:

File Exchange Utilities

File exchange utilities allow files to be easily copied from one network node to another.

Project Management Systems

The introduction of LAN implementations has allowed these systems to be integrated more completely into the workgroup. A manager and team member can agree on the parameters of a task, the team member can update his or her progress, and the manager can monitor the progress.

Group Decision Support Systems

Group decision support systems (GDSSs) assist individuals and groups in the decision-making process and help them set objectives.
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Application Software: Workgroup Applications (cont.)

Applications that allow users to make more effective use of their microcomputers on a LAN include:

Electronic Meeting Systems

The inclusion of networks allow participants to exchange machinereadable information in the form of graphics, text, audio, and fullmotion video.

Document Management Systems

Capabilities include indexing documents, finding documents based on keywords contained in the document, controlling document changes, and allowing several users to collaborate on document editing.

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LAN Characteristics
Transparent Use Mixed Hardware and Software Limited Geographical Area High Speed Resource Sharing LAN Media Communication Protocols Local Ownership
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LAN Selection Criteria

Cost
For most of us, cost is an overriding constraint, an you must choose the best solution within your budget. Usually, cost is the most inflexible constraint under which you must operate, and in the final analysis the LAN must be a cost-effective solution to your problem.

Number of Workstations
Each LAN is physically capable of supporting some maximum number of workstations. If you exceed that maximum number, you must make some provision for extending the maximum number.

Type of Workstations
The LAN hardware and software must be compatible with the workstation used and their operating systems.
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LAN Selection Criteria (cont.)

Number of Concurrent Users
As the number of concurrent users goes up, so does the LAN workload. As the LAN workload increases, you have two basic choices: You can allow system responsiveness to decrease, or you can increase the work potential of the system.

Type of Use
Many concurrent users may increase the LAN workload.

Number and Type of Printers

Some LAN operating systems have limits on the number of network printers supported by a server.

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LAN Selection Criteria (cont.)

Distance and Medium
Attaining high speed over long distances can be very expensive. Thus, each LAN has a maximum distance it can cover.

Speed
It is important that you select a LAN capable of meeting your performance goals. Common LAN speeds available for microcomputers are 4, 10, 16, 100, and 1,000 Mbps, and the trend is for increasing speeds.

Applications
If an application uses an interface not supported by a particular LAN, then the application probably will not work on that network. Moreover some software is not LAN compatible.
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LAN Selection Criteria (cont.)

Expandability
After installing a LAN, you probably will need to add workstations to it or move workstations from one location to another. The ease of doing this varies among implementations.

Device connectivity
Some organizations need to attach special devices to the LAN, for example, a plotter or scanner. LAN interfaces for such devices may not be available on some LANs or on some LAN file servers.

Connectivity to Other Networks

A variety of connection capabilities exist, but a given LAN may not support all of them.

LAN Software and Hardware

You need to select LAN software and hardware that will be compatible with your existing equipment.
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LAN Selection Criteria (cont.)

Adherence to Established Standards
There are several standards for LAN implementation. Some LANs conform to these standards whereas others do not. There are pros and cons of selecting either a conforming system, or a system that does not conform to standards.

Vendor and Support

Your vendors ought to be able to help you in times of problems; provide you with maintenance and support; and supply you with spare parts, hardware and software upgrades, and new equipment.

Manageability
During the selection process, you must ensure that your LAN will have the necessary management tools or that third-party tools are available. Third-party tools are those written by someone other than the LAN vendor.
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LAN Selection Criteria (cont.)

Security
Data in a LAN is shared. Sharing should not, however, imply that all users should have unlimited access to all data. The LAN software must have the ability to control access to data.

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Immediate and Recurring costs of a LAN

Immediate Costs
Equipment upgrades Documentation Installation of cabling System software installation Creating user environments Space required for new equipment Training users, operators, administrators Site preparation Hardware installation Installing applications Testing Supplies and spares

Recurring Costs

LAN managementpersonnel costs Consumable suppliestoner, paper, etc.

Hardware and software maintenance Training new users, administrators

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Basic LAN Management Tasks

User/Group Oriented
Printer Oriented
Add, delete users and groups
Set user environment Install/remove printers Maintain printers

Set user/group security

Solve user problems Setup user/printer environment Manage print jobs Establish connections with other networks

Hardware/Software Add/change/delete hardware Oriented Add/change/delete hardware General

Plan and implement changes Make backups

Diagnose problems

Maintain operating procedures

Carry out recovery as necessary Educate users Plan capacity needs Monitor the network for problems and to gather statistics for capacity planning

Serve as liaison with other network administrators

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Hardware and LAN Media

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Section Preview
In this section we will study:

What makes up a LAN system Several of the Leading LAN media Characteristics of LAN media Error sources, detection, and correction

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Three Major LAN Components

LAN software Topology The media access control (MAC) protocol

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Things to Consider When Building a LAN

A variety of mediatwisted-pair wires, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, and several lesser used wireless media Three basic topologiesring, bus, and star Two basic media access control protocols contention and token passing Hardware from many vendors Network operating systems from several vendors Network utilities Application software
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Two Major Classes of LAN Media

Conducted Media
uses a conductor like a wire or a fiber optic cable to move the signal from sender to receiver includes twisted-pair wires, coaxial cables, and fiber optic cables

Wireless Media
uses radio waves of different frequencies or infrared light broadcast through space does not need a wire or cable conductor to transmit signals
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Conducted Media
Twisted-Pair Wires
Twisted-pair wires are classified in several ways by American wire gauge (AWG) rating by shielding, either unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) or shielded twisted-pair (STP) by categories that define the wires rated acceptable speed and error characteristics

AWG Rating
The AWG rating is a measure of the thickness of the copper conductor in the cable. The higher the AWG rating, the smaller the diameter of the wire. Twisted-pair wiring for LANs have an AWG rating of 22-26.
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Conducted Media (cont.)

UTP and STP
Shielded twisted-pair (STP) These wires have a metal foil or wire mesh wrapped around individual wire pairs with a metal braided shield around the twisted-pair wire bundle itself. Twisting pairs of wires helps eliminate interference from neighboring wires; the metal shielding helps prevent ambient distortion like heavy-duty motors, electrical or magnetic fields, and fluorescent lights. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) These wires have no protective metal covering. UTP wires are more susceptible to environmental noise that can disrupt the signal. UTP is used because it is cheaper than STP, and it may safely be used in environments where external disruptions are rare.
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Twisted-Pair Wire Category Summary

Category Maximum Data Rate Typical Use Cost (Relative to Category 1)

1 Mbps

Telephones

2
3 4

4 Mbps
10 Mbps 16 Mbps

Token Ring LANs

Ethernet LANs Token ring LANs

1.5
2 3

100, 155, and 1,000 Mbps

Ethernet, fast ethernet, and gigabit ethernet LANs, CDDI LANs and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)

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Coaxial Cable
Most early microcomputer-based LAN implementations used coaxial cable as the medium. Coaxial cable comes packaged in a variety of ways, but essentially it consists of one or two central data transmission wires surrounded by an insulating layer, a shielding layer, and an outer jacket. Coaxial cable is most commonly used in two types of LANs, ethernet and ARCNET.

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A Single Conductor Coaxial Cable

Outer Insulation

Mesh Shielding

Insulation

Conductor

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Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables come in two varieties, multimode and singlemode, each with a different way of guiding the light pulses from source to destination. Fiber optic links for very short distances cost more than wires, but as distance or the required transmission rate increases, fiber optic cables become cost effective. Fiber optic cables will not corrode, so they can be used in environments unsuited for copper media.

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Views of a Fiber Optic Cable

Plastic Covering

Glass Cladding

Glass Conductor

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Wireless Media
Broadcast Radio
When broadcast radio is used with local area networks, cables connecting each microcomputer are eliminated.

Microwave Radio
For networks where installation of conducted media is difficult or too expensive, microwaves provide a highspeed medium alternative.

Spread Spectrum Radio

Its reliability in environments where signal interference is likely makes SSR well suited for LAN transmissions.
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Wireless Media (cont.)

Infrared Transmission
Infrared transmission is a line-of-sight technology. It can be used to provide LAN connections between buildings and also is the medium used in some wireless local area networks.

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The Frequencies of Various Wireless Media

Frequency (Hz )

1016 1015 1014 1013 1012 1011 1010 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101

X rays, gamma rays Ultraviolet light Visible light Infrared light Millimeter waves Microwaves UHF television VHF television VHF TV (high band) FM radio VHF TV (low band) Short-wave radio AM radio

Very low frequency

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LAN Media Selection Criteria

Cost Speed or Capacity Availability Expandability Error Rates

Security Distance Environment Application Maintenance

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Media Selection Criteria

Cost
The costs associated with a given transmission medium include not only the costs of the medium but also ancillary fees, such as the costs for additional hardware like repeaters that might be required.

Speed
Response time Aggregate data rate

Expandability
Some LAN media, for example, coaxial cable, are easier to expand than others, for example, fiber optic cables.
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Media Selection Criteria (cont.)

Error Rates
The propensity for error influences not only the quality of the transmission but also its speed.

Security
Although most of the hacker incidents reported relate to wide area networks, similar concerns occur on LANs.

Distance
Before deploying a medium, LAN designers need to determine the distances that need to be covered and ensure that the wiring configuration or wireless configuration does not exceed the distance limitations of the technology being used.
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Media Selection Criteria (cont.)

Environment
The constraints of environment can eliminate certain types of media.

Application
In some applications, the characteristics of the required equipment may dictate the type of medium and interfaces to be used.

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Characteristics of Common LAN Media

Medium Type
Unshielded twisted-pair Shielded twisted-pair Coaxial Cable

Common Speeds (Mbps)

1, 4, 10, 16, 100, 1000 1, 4, 10, 16, 100, 1000 10, 16, 50

Error Characteristics
Less capable than other conducted media Better than unshielded; less capable than fiber optic or coaxial cables Good; less capable than fiber optic cable

Fiber optic cable

Broadcast radio Spread spectrum radio Microwave radio Infrared light

10, 16, 50, 100, 1000, 2000

2 2, 10, 16 5.7 4, 10, 16

Excellent
Subject to interference Good Subject to interference Objects can block transmission

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Error Sources
White Noise
White noise, also referred to as thermal noise and Gaussian noise, result from the normal movements of electrons and is present in al transmission media at temperatures above absolute zero.

Impulse Noise
In LANs, it can be caused by lightning striking the medium, by jarring loose connections, or by transient electrical impulses such as those occurring on a shop floor.

Crosstalk
Crosstalk occurs when signals from one channel distort or interfere with the signals of a different channel.

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Error Sources (cont.)

Echo
Echo is essentially the reflection or reversal of the signal being transmitted.

Attenuation
Attenuation is the weakening of a signal as a result of distance and characteristics of the medium.

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Error Detection
Parity Check
A parity check (also known as vertical redundancy check [VRC]) involves adding a bitknown as the parity bitto each character during transmission.

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)

With LRC, an additional, redundant character called the block check character (BCC) is appended to a block of transmitted characters, typically at the end of the block.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

A CRC can detect bit errors better than either VRC or LRC or both. The transmitting station generates the CRC and transmits it with the data.
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Error Detection (cont.)

Sequence Checks
Sequence check numbers can be assigned to each block of data so that the ultimate receiver can determine that all blocks have indeed arrived, and the blocks can be put back into proper sequence.

Error Correction Codes

Some error-detection schemes allow the receiving station not only to detect errors but also to correct some of them. Such codes are called forward error-correcting codes, the most common of which are called Hamming codes.
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Error Correction
Message Acknowledgment
The mechanism used to effect retransmission is the positive or negative acknowledgment, often referred to as ACK and NAK, respectively.

Retry Limit
To cut down on continual retransmission of messages, a retry limittypically between 3 and 100can be set. A retry limit of five means that a message received in error will be retransmitted five times; if it is not successfully received by the fifth try, the receiving station either disables the link or disables the sending station itself.
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Topologies and Media Access Control

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Section Preview
In this section we will study:

LAN topologies Media access control protocols Common ways in which topologies and media access control protocols are combined LAN standards Strengths and weaknesses of different LAN configurations
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LAN Topologies
The term topology derives from a mathematics field that deals with points and surfaces in spacethat is, with the layout of objects in space. The LAN topology is the physical layout of the network. LANs have three basic topologies: ring, bus, and star.
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Ring Topology

Data Flow

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Bus Topology

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Star Topology

Wiring Hub

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Data Link Protocols

In general, a data link protocol establishes the rules for gaining access to the medium and exchanging messages. To do this, the protocol describes several aspects of the message-exchange process. Six of the most important are:
Media Access Delineation of Data Error Control Addressing Transparency Code Independence
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Data Link Protocols (cont.)

Media Access
Media access defines how a node gains the right to transmit data on the medium.

Delineation of Data
A data link protocol must define or delineate where the data portion of the transmitted message begins and ends. This can be accomplished in two basic ways: by framing the data with certain control characters or by using a standard message format wherein data is identified by its position within the message.
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Data Link Protocols (cont.)

Error Control
Error control is used to determine whether data has been corrupted during the transmission.

Addressing
Communication between two network nodes is accomplished through an addressing scheme. Networks use a hierarchical addressing scheme, with the hierarchy being application, network node, and network.

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Data Link Protocols (cont.)

Transparency
Transparency is the ability of the data link to transmit any bit combination. We like protocols to be transparent because they can be used to transfer binary data such as object programs as well as text data. LAN data link protocols ordinarily provide transparency.

Code Independence
Code independence means that any data code, such as ASCII or EBCDIC, can be transmitted.

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MAC Protocols
LAN technology adheres to two primary MAC protocols: token passing and contention. Contention
In a pure contention MAC protocol, each network node has equal access to the medium. Variations of this protocol exist, some of which allow for node priorities.

Token Passing
Token passing is used on both bus and ring topologies. Token passing is a round-robin protocol in which each node gets an equal opportunity to transmit. With token passing, the right to transmit is granted by a token that is passed from one node to another.
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LAN Standards
Standards exist covering most aspects of LAN technology Implementing according to established standards generally results in the availability of components from multiple vendors, competition among vendors, and lower prices. The organizations most active in setting standards for LAN topologies and MAC protocols are the IEEE and ANSI.

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IEEE Standards
The 802 Committee established by the IEEE is divided into subcommittees, each of which addresses specific LAN issues and architecture.
High-Level Interface Logical Link Control CSMA/CD Token Bus Token Ring MANs Broadband Technical Advisory Group Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group Integrated Data and Voice Networks LAN Security Wireless LANs Demand Priority Access Method Data Transport over Cable TV Short-Distance Wireless Networks Broadband Wireless Access
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LLC and MAC Sublayers of the OSI Data Link Layer

Application Layer
Presentation Layer Session Layer Transport Layer Logical Link Control

Network Layer
Data Link Layer Physical Layer OSI Reference Model Layers

Media Access Control

Media Signaling Bus Interface Unit

Communications Interface Unit (CIU)

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ANSI Distributed Queue Dual Bus LAN

Bus A, Unidirectional

Bus B, Unidirectional
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Suggested Broadband Frequency Allocations

280 Video Transmission Channel

240
Frequency (Nhz) 200 160 120 80 Voice or Data Channel 40 0 Low-Speed Data Channel High-Speed Data Channel

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Comparison of Token-Passing and CSMA/CD Media Access Control Protocols

Token Passing
Equal access for all nodes.
Predictable access window. Maximum wait time to transmit is token circulation time. Average wait time to transmit is predictable (half the maximum circulation time). Network congestion does not adversely affect network efficiency. A node needs to wait for the token before being able to transmit. One node cannot monopolize the network. Large rings can cause long delays before a node obtains a token. Consistent performance for large, busy networks.

CSMA/CD
Equal access for all nodes.
Access window can be unpredictable. Maximum wait time to transmit is unpredictable and depends on collisions Average wit time to transmit is unpredictable. Network congestion may cause collisions and reduce network efficiency. A node may be able to transmit immediately. One node may be able to monopolize the network. A node can transmit when the network is quiet. Unpredictable performance for large, busy networks due to possibility of collisions.
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Topology and Protocol Trade-Offs

There are two primary LAN implementations in use, CSMA/CD buses (ethernet) and tokenpassing rings. Ethernet has the major market share between the two. Ethernet provides fair access for all nodes, but he exact time a node waits before sending a message may vary. Ethernet provides higher speeds and lower costs than token rings.

1-94

Broadband and Baseband Technologies

Broadband transmission and baseband transmission are different ways in which you can use a medium.
Broadband transmission divides the medium into several channels, thus allowing the medium to be used for distinct transmission needs. Baseband transmission dedicates the entire datacarrying capacity of the medium to the LAN.

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LAN Hardware

1-96

Section Preview
In this section we will study:

Servers Backup devices Workstation hardware LAN adapters Printers Miscellaneous hardware
1-97

Server Platforms
File Services
File Servers A file server allows users to share files. Only one copy of application software like word processing, spreadsheet, or database must reside on a file server. Individual clients share these applications. Database Servers The database server was developed to solve problems like passing an entire file over the medium. The most common example of a database server is the SQL server. Structured query language (SQL) is a standard database definition, access, and update language for relational databases.
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Server Platforms (cont.)

Print Services
When a client shares a printer on the LAN, it can submit jobs to the printer at any time. The print job is collected on disk, and printing is deferred until the printer is available for printing a new job and the print job is the next one eligible to be printed.

1-99

Print Server Technology

Client Application Print Server Server Spooler

Client Spooler

Print Monitor

Router

1-100

Server Selection Considerations Server Disk Drives

When choosing a server, you should carefully select the servers disk subsystem. There are five factors that are critical when choosing a servers disk subsystem: Storage Capacity Average Access Time Separation of Function Fault Tolerance Drive Interface
1-101

Server Selection Considerations (cont.)

Server Memory
In Intel-based servers, there are two classes of memoryLevel 1/2 cache and standard random access memory (RAM)

Processors and Processor Speed

The processing power of the server is also a critical factor. It seldom makes sense to select a server that has fast disks and plenty of memory but a slow CPU. In general, the server ought to be one of the fastestif not the fastestcomputers on the network.
1-102

Server Selection Considerations (cont.)

Processor Bus
A variety of buses are available. The bus is the path over which data is transferred between the CPU, memory, and peripherals.

Expansion and Power

A server should have sufficient expansion capability and the power to use the expansion slots effectively. Network server capacity can be expanded by adding hardware to the existing server or by adding additional servers.

Compatibility
The server platform you choose must be compatible with the topology, MAC protocol, applications, and system software on the network.
1-103

IBM-Compatible System Buses

Industry standard architecture (ISA)
Enhanced industry standard architecture (EISA) Micro channel architecture (MCA) Video electronics standards association (VESA) Peripheral component interconnect (PCI) PC-Card (formerly PCMCIA)

VESA local (VL-Bus)

1-104

Backup Devices
Floppy Diskette Drives
The major disadvantages of this backup method is the low capacity and speed of the backup media.

Removable Disk Drives

Manual intervention is necessary for changing disk cartridges, whereas some tape backup system provide tapes with much higher storage capacity and with automatic tape changing.

Hard-Disk Drives
The arguments for and against this alternative are much the same as those for diskettes. The major difference is that the capacity of harddisk drives is greater than that of diskettes.
1-105

Backup Devices (cont.)

Optical Disk Drives
Optical disk drives are gaining popularity as input, output, and backup devices. The reasons for this are their decreasing costs and large storage capacity.

Magnetic Tape Drives

A magnetic tape drive is the usual choice for a backup device. Magnetic tapes are less expensive than the other options. They hold large volumes of data, are easy to use and store, and generally provide good performance.

1-106

Primary Backup Technologies

Diskette backup 1.44 MB Multiple capacities 40 MB to over 1 G To 15 GB 160 MB 2.2 GB Tape backup, 8mm or VCR Tape backup, 9-track Optical drives Digital versatile disks (when available) To 2.2 GB To 100 MB To 4 GB 10-14 GB 60 MB 500 MB 15 GB 150 MB 1.2 GB 70 GB (compressed) 2.88 MB 20 MB

Hard drive, fixed

Hard drive, removable cartridge Tape backup, 4mm or 1/4 inch

1-107

Backup Functions
Back up all files Incremental backup

Differential backup
Back up all files modified since a particular date Back up by directory Back up automatically by time or calendar Back up all but a list of files to be excluded Start backup from workstation or server

Maintain index on tape and disk

Maintain cross-reference of tape serial numbers and backup Back up manually Back up by list of files Back up by index Compress data

Back up by interface to a database

Back up using wildcard characters in file names

Back up multiple volumes

Generate reports

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Workstations
Diskless Workstations
A diskless workstation does not have any local disk drives. Instead, a diskless workstation has its boot logic in a read-only memory (ROM) chip located on the LAN adapter. Because diskless workstations have no disk drives, they are inherently less expensive than those with disks.

Workstation Memory and Speed

The speed of the workstations processor must be compatible with the type of work for which it is being used. Basically, it is the application, not the LAN, that determines the power of the workstations.
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LAN Adapters
If you have chosen an architecture, medium, and media access control protocol, you have narrowed the options for LAN adapters, also known as a network interface card (NIC). LAN adapters provide the connection between the medium and the bus of the workstation or server. LAN adapters are designed to support a specific protocol using a specific medium, although a few can support two or three different medium types.

1-110

Printers
One major factor that affects the success of a LAN is printer support. Some LANs have restrictions regarding the distribution of printers and the number of printers that can be supported by one server. A printer driver is a software module that determines how to format data for proper printing on a specific type of printer. The printers you intend to use must be supported by the software drivers provided by the LAN operating system or printer vendor.
1-111

Hubs and Switches

Some LAN architectures use wiring hubs to provide device interconnection. Hubs vary in the number of ports available. A very common configuration is 8 ports, with 12- and 16-port hubs as common alternatives. Hubs may be standalone or stackable.
1-112

Making Connections
The objective of network connectionthat is, connecting a computer to the LAN mediumis to provide a data path between the medium and the computers memory. The interface or connection to the medium is called the communications interface unit (CIU), and the interface or connection to the computers bus is called the bus interface unit (BIU).
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Details of Node-to-Medium Connection

LAN Node
Nodes I/O Bus

Bus interface Unit (BIU)

Transceiver LAN Medium Communications Interface Unit (CIU)

1-114

Transceiver Located on a LAN Adapter

Ethernet Controller

Encoder/ Decoder

Transceiver Bus Interface

RAM

Cable
1-115

Software Introduction

1-116

Section Preview
In this section we will study:

The distinction between the different classes of software The generic requirements of workstation software The generic requirements of server software Software requirements for shared access How software can be protected on a LAN Some of the standards covering LAN software The need for and general provisions of software license agreements
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Classes of Software
Application Software Operating System Software
Memory management The OS manages memory and allocates it among itself and the requesting processes according to a memory management scheme adopted by the OS designers File management The OS provides the ability to organize bits into files, files into directories, and so on User interface Creating user environments is an OS function I/O interfaces The OS and file management system translate the request to access a file into an address the disk can act on
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Classes of Software (cont.)

Resource allocation The OS has an algorithm that determines which ready process gets access to the CPU and the conditions under which a running process maintains control of the CPU Accounting CPU usage Lines printed Disk space used Transactions submitted (by type) Data communications medium usage bytes read from and written to disk
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Classes of Software (cont.)

Protection/Security The OS provides the base on which security is established. We expect the OS to prevent user programs from crashing the system and to eliminate the intrusion of one program onto the memory occupied by another programs data.

Database Management
A database management system (DBS) extends the OS file management capabilities. A DBMS provides software that allows the user or database administrator to: Define records, files, and file relationships Access, update, and delete data in the database Set up security Establish, maintain, and use a data dictionary Use host language interfaces that allow the database to be manipulated by standard programming languages
1-120

Classes of Software (cont.)

Utility Software
Utilities augment the function of the OS or other subsystem, such as the database management system or the data communications subsystem.

Development Software
Development software includes text editors, text formatters, compilers, interpreters, link editors, cross-reference programs, testing utilities, and related programs and utilities

Network Management Software

Network management includes a variety of activities such as backups, problem resolution, capacity planning, and establishing user environments

Network Access Software

Network access software for a LAN includes the components that allow us to access LAN resources from directly attached workstations and remote workstations
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Generic Functions of LAN System Software

LAN system software is essentially an extension of the OS. It carries out hardware-oriented LAN tasks, such as interfacing to the medium, and I/Ooriented tasks such as directing print jobs and disk read/write requests to a server. The purpose of system software is to insulate applications from hardware details such as I/O and memory management. System software provides an interface through which the applications can request hardware services without needing to know the details of how the services are carried out.
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LAN System Software in Server and Workstation

Application Program A1 Server Operating System Server System Software Disk Drive Medium Interface Software Medium Interface Software

Network Redirector

Disk Drive

Operating System

LAN Medium
1-123

LAN Redirector Functions

Application Program A1 Network Redirector Disk Operating System Medium Interface Software

Redirector intercepts I/O request and routes to appropriate software module.

Network Request

LAN Medium
1-124

LAN Server Request Queue

LAN System Software Server Operating System Server Disk

Database Read Write to Printer Download Application Database Read Write to Printer Write to Printer

Queue of Waiting Requests

1-125

User Configuration Options

Default disk drive Default disk directory

Disk drive/directory search paths Printer mappings Initial program/menu

Disk drive mappings

1-126

A Contention Problem
Karen's Application

Karen reads Record A with lock

Record A
Juan issues a read request for Record A

Record A
Juan's Application
Read Record A

Record A is locked by Karen so Juan must wait

Database
Pending Request

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Exclusive, Protected, and Shared Open Combinations

Currently Opened As

Open Mode Requested

Exclusive Protected

Exclusive Denied Denied

Protected Denied Denied Denied Granted

Shared Update Denied Denied

Shared Read-only Denied Granted

Shared, update
Shared, read-only

Denied
Denied

Granted
Granted

Granted
Granted

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Waiting for Lock Release

Application 1

Application 1 reads Record A with lock Application 2 issues a read request to Record A Record A is locked by Application 1, so Application 2 must wait

Record A

Record A
Application 2
Read Record A

Database
Pending Request

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Deadlock Situation
Application 1 has read and locked Record A

Application 1
Application 2 has read and locked Record B Application 1 is waiting for Application 2 to release Record B Application 2 is waiting for Application 1 to release Record A Application 1 and 2 are deadlocked and will wait forever

Record A Record B Locked by A2

Read Record A

Record A

Application 2

Record B

Database
Pending Request
1-130

Software Standards
Most of the LANs in operation today are called open networks, meaning that they adhere to a set of standards formulated by organizations such as ISO, ANSI, IEEE, and EIA. These standards are placed in the public domain and are called open standards.
1-131

Software Protection
Software is protected in seven basic ways:
The code is kept secret so other software houses cannot use special algorithms developed by the company to write a competing system. The code is copyrighted to prevent another company from copying the code and writing a competing system. Legislation penalizing those who do not adhere to the copyright and license restrictions is enforced. The software is copy-protected to deter someone from making an illegal copy. License agreements are used to establish the terms of ownership and use. The software requires WAN/Internet verification before it is activated. The software requires a special hardware device to run.

1-132

Software License Agreements

The license agreement states the conditions under which you are allowed to use the product. In general, license agreements take one of the following forms:
Single-user, single-workstation licenses A single-user, single-workstation license agreement is the most restrictive. It specifies that the software is to be used on one workstation only and by only one person at a time. Single-user, multiple-workstation licenses The constraints of the single-user, single-workstation agreement are relaxed by the single-user, multiple-workstation license agreement. It usually relies on the honor system for enforcement. The purchase of a single copy of the software allows the owner to install it on several systems.
1-133

Software License Agreements (cont.)

Restricted number of concurrent users licenses Most LAN-compatible software is designed for multiple users; however, some software vendors limit the number of concurrent users with a restricted number of concurrent users license agreement. The main idea behind this strategy is to charge by the number of users. Server licenses A server license allows an application to be installed on one server. All users attached to that server may use the application. If a company has several servers, say three, and wants to use the application on each of them, the company must purchase three licenses or three copies of the software.,
1-134

Software License Agreements (cont.)

Site licenses
A site license gives the user unlimited rights to use the software at a given site. The site may be a single LAN or multiple LANs at one location.

Corporate licenses
A corporate license gives the corporation unlimited use of the software at all locations. Some companies restrict a corporate license to all locations within one country. Sometimes, the right to reproduce documentation is also granted.

1-135

License Agreement Owners Rights

The license agreement is intended primarily to protect the rights of the manufacturer. However, the owner of a license agreement also has certain rights:
The owner can transfer or assign the license to another user. The owner can get a refund if the product is defective or does not work as stated. The owner has legal rights granted by certain states or countries regarding the exclusion of liability for losses or damage resulting from the use of the software. The owner can terminate the license by destroying the software and documentation.
1-136

LAN System Software

1-137

Section Preview
In this section we will study:

Generic LAN system software functions Workstation system software functions Server system software functions Printer software Backup software
1-138

Server/Workstation Communications
The first problem the workstation must address is connecting to a server. Once a client has a server connection, the user at the client can log onto the network. Depending on the LAN OS being used, a user can log onto a single server, a collection of resources called a domain, or the entire corporate network. Regardless of the environmentsingle server, domain, or network directorythe users network software must find a server resource that can authenticate the logon request.
1-139

Server/Workstation Communications (cont.)

The address of the server with which the workstation must communicate is essential because the address is part of the data link message header. The network layer protocols determine the format of addresses. Leading transport/network layer protocols include the transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) used on the Internet, and the sequenced packet exchange /internet packet exchange (SPX/IPX) protocol used on many Novell and Microsoft LANs.
1-140

IP and IPX Header Formats

IP Type Time Packet Fragment Header Source Destination Version Header of Identification Flags to Protocol Length Offset Checksum Address Address Length Service Live

IP Header

Checksum Length

Transport Packet Destination Destination Destination Source Source Source Control Type Network Node Socket Network Node Socket

IPX Header

1-141

Services Advertising Protocol

In Novell NetWare LAN implementations, the services advertising protocol (SAP) is implemented at the OSI application layer. Inherent in this protocol is the presence of a server table in each server and router. When the server is initiated, one of its startup functions is to broadcast a SAP message. A broadcast message has a distinct destination address that allows it to be accepted by all nodes. The SAP message identifies the servers name, address, and the types of services it can provide.
1-142

A Generic Server Table

Server Name
MktgSvr AcctSvr SWDevSvr HRSvr MfgSvr RanDSvr ExOffL Unused

Address
A12B634A DDC3958B DD84A124 A12C583D 29837CAB 834AB3E7

Server Type
File File File SQL File File

Hops
1 2 0 1 1 0

5602C0A1

Printer

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The Network Directory

In a large LAN with hundreds of users, hundreds of e-mail addresses, dozens of printers, and 5 to 10 servers, keeping track of the names and locations of people and equipment is a significant effort. A network directory is fundamentally a database of LAN objects, properties of those objects, and values for properties.

1-144

Possible Contents of a Network Directory

Object
Server User Name Login name Address Printer Name Print queues Disk volume Name Location Print server Server name Capacity

Properties
Network address Full name Location Telephone E-mail address Operator name

Interface

Manufacturer

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Client/Server Dialogue
Once the client and server have connected, a client/server dialogue can begin. When an application requests a service from the OS, it does so by issuing a signal called an interrupt. The redirector reacts to the interrupt and decides whether it is a LAN request or a local request. The redirector must know which interrupts to intercept. Once the redirector has the request, it must formulate a server message to indicate which service is to be provided. It formats a message with the proper request codes and sends the message to the LANCom process.
1-146

Redirector Implementations
Client Operating System

Redirector

Application Program

LANCom

Redirector receives application requests and routes local request to the client OS and network request to LAN communication process.
1-147

Redirector Implementations (cont.)

Client Operating System

Redirector

Application Program

LANCom

Client OS gets request and sends network requests to the redirector.

1-148

LAN Operating System Functions

Optimized I/O
One of the main services provided by a server is disk access. Disk access consists of three components: seek, latency, and transfer. I/O optimization attempts to reduce one or more of these disk access components.

Disk Configurations
One of the functions of an OS is to implement a file system. This involves allocating and deallocating disk space and keeping track of space allocated to each file. Partitioning sometimes it is beneficial to divide a single disk drive in two or more partitions; each partition can be managed separately

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LAN Operating System Functions (cont.)

Single Disk Volume a volume is a logical disk (a partition or collection of partitions) or physical disk that has been formatted and can be used to store data by an OS.

Multiple Disk Volumes or Volume Sets Most LAN OSs allow multiple partitions or disks to be combined to form a single logical partition. A volume created from multiple partitions is called a volume set. RAID Level 0Striping without parity Another capability provided with some LAN OSs is called a Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) Level 0 or striping without parity. Multiple partitions on different disks can be combined to proved a single logical disk; striping with parity differs from a volume just described in that data is written to all partitions simultaneously.

1-150

Fault Tolerance
A LAN with fault tolerance allows the server to survive some failures that would ordinarily be disabling. Fault tolerance usually is provided by a combination of backup hardware components and software capable of using the backup hardware. A level of fault tolerance also can be provided by using redundant arrays of inexpensive disks (RAID). There are six levels of RAID, but for fault tolerance we are concerned only with RAID Level 1 and RAID Level 5.
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Mirrored Disk Drives

Duplexed Controllers

Controller 1

Controller 2

File 1 File 2
1

File 1 File 2
2
1-152

Raid Level 5 Technology

Server

File 1 Part 1 File 2 Part 2

File 1 Part 2 File 2 Part 3

File 1 Parity File 2 Part 1

File 1 Part 3 File 1 Parity

4
1-153

A Fault-Tolerant Duplexed Server

Duplexed Servers

Dedicated High-Speed Connection

Disk Drive

Disk Drive

Mirrored Disk Drives

1-154

Logical and Physical Printers

In discussing the operation of a printing environment, we need to make a distinction between logical printing and physical printing. The applications job stream is sent to a logical printer. Logical printers collect print streams from one or more applications. Logical printers are connected to zero, one, or several physical printers that Microsoft call a printing device.
1-155

LAN Printing Configurations

Because printing requirements vary among companies using LANs, a wide range of implementation options exist. Among these are:
Private printers attached to a users computer and not shared Shared printers attached to file servers Shared printers attached to users workstations Shared printers attached to computers that are dedicated to the printing task Shared printers attached to special-purpose print servers Shared printers attached directly to the LAN via an on-board LAN adapter and print server

1-156

Some Spooler Options

Collect printed output
Hold hobs in disk queue after printing View jobs on hold in print queue

Direct print jobs to designated printers

Hold jobs in disk queue before printing Set number of print copies Attach/detach printers from print queue Add/delete printers Start/stop spooler process Close print jobs based on timeout interval

Delete jobs from print queue

Se/change job priorities Start/stop printers Print banners Print statistical reports

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Backup Software
The software used to perform the backups is as important as the hardware. Backup software is responsible for reading the files being backed up and writing them to the backup device. Backup devices often come with a backup/restore program (both capabilities are contained on one program), and most LAN system software includes a backup/restore module. Some LAN administrators choose to purchase a separate, more functional backup system than the LAN or backup device versions.
1-158

Client/Server Architecture

1-159

Section Preview
In this section we will study:

What is client/server? Client/server history Client/server advantages and disadvantages Client/server technology Client/server standards Client/server database implementations
1-160

What Is Client/Server?
A client is a software module that relies on a server software module for some of an applications processing requirements. The server performs the work necessary to complete the request and returns the result to the client. Client/server computing is:
a modular approach to application design an architecture for software deployment and sharing a hardware-independent approach to application design
1-161

Client/Server Computing: A Modular Approach

The client/server approach to application design takes advantage of the fact that applications typically perform a variety of functions. Three of the most common functions are presentation, business, and database logic. If this type of architecture is adopted, changes in one functional area can be isolated from the remainder of the system.
1-162

Single Process Client/Server Configuration

Database Logic

Business Logic

Presentation Logic

Disk drives

Application

Terminal

1-163

Client/Server Computing: Software Sharing

Client/server computing can take advantage of the fact that some application logic is common to multiple programs. Because most applications use databases, the logic these applications use to access and manipulate data is mostly the same. With client/server computing, these applications can share this logic rather than have it embedded within each program.
1-164

Client/Server Computing: Hardware-Independent Approach

Client/server provides a way of crafting application systems for single computers as well as for networks. Therefore, client/server applications can be spread over a wide variety of hardware configurations. The primary requirement is an ability for the client and server to communicate.

1-165

Client/Server on a Network
File/Print Server Database (SQL) Server Clients

Bus. Logic

Pres. Logic

Requests and Responses

1-166

Client/Server an Historical Perspective

In the early days of computing, a programmer often needed to address the issues of hardware interfaces as well as the issues of business logic. This required more skills from the programmer, and development time was extensive because hardware-oriented logic often had to be duplicated in multiple programs. With the advent of compilers and operating systems, the application programmers responsibilities were reduced. Compilers allowed code to be written in high-level languages, like COBOL and C++. ON-line transaction processing (OLTP) provided another step toward client/server computing. The implementation used in leading OLTP systems was the precursor of modern client/server computing environments.
1-167

Client/Server Models
Server Client

Database Logic
Database Server Model Server

Business Logic

Presentation Logic

Client

Database Logic Business Logic

Split Business Logic Model Server

Business Logic Presentation Logic

Client

Database Logic Business Logic

Presentation Client Model

Presentation Logic

1-168

Local Procedure Call Example

P2

Procedure P2 (input1, output1)

P1

Procedure P1 (input1, input2, ouput1) Call P2 (param1, param2)

Local Procedure Calls

Main

Call P1 (param1, param2, param3)

Program

1-169

Remote Procedure Call Example

Procedure P2 (input1, output1) P2

Procedure P1 (input1, P1 input2, ouput1) Call P2 (param1, param2)

Main Call P1 (param1, param2, Local param3) Program

Remote Procedure Call

Procedure Call

Client Computer

Server Computer

1-170

SQL Server
With SQL server technology, the database processing is done on the server. In file server technology, the database processing is the responsibility of the client. The advantages of the SQL server technology are as follows:
Less data is transmitted over the network. Database processing that can be optimized for that task is performed on the server. If database processing demands increase, more powerful SQL servers can be installed to accommodate the increased workload. Processing is distributed over multiple computers, each of which can be optimized for the tasks it performs.

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Relationship Between SQL Server and Client

Vendor A

Business Logic

Database Driver Vendor A Database Driver Vendor B Client Computer

Com. Interface

Database (SQL) Servers

Vendor B
1-172

The Role of the SQL Server

The SQL servers job is to process the queries it receives from clients. The SQL server must be multithreaded. Because the SQL server specializes in carrying out database requests, it can be highly optimized for tasks it performs. To optimize the SQL server operations, an SQL server computer may be configured with some of the following options:
Multiple processors for parallel processing Large amounts of RAM for caching disk images Processor s dedicated for improving the speed of disk access High-speed buses Efficient disk subsystems that allow parallel disk accesses Fault-tolerant disk configurations to reduce the risk of database outages High-speed communications between client and server
1-173

Combined Client/Server Responsibilities

Clients and servers have disjoint processing responsibilities. There are some processing responsibilities that may be assigned to either the client or the server or split between them. One example of this is the enforcement of business rules. There are advantages and disadvantages to having the logic for enforcing business rules in the server. When such logic is placed in the server, there is a single point at which the logic is placed. If the business logic changes, the change can be made in the servers logic, and all clients immediately see the effect of the changes. However, adding application logic to the server increases its workload and can decrease the servers ability to provide fast responses to requests.
1-174

Client/Server Standards
Client/server standards have been formulated to allow open systems and provide a mechanisms for interoperability of clients and servers. The standards being formed include:
how clients and servers communicate with each other how clients find the server or servers that perform their needed functions

Interfaces between clients and servers have come to be called middleware. Middleware is responsible for making the connection between clients and servers.
Examples of middleware and its standardization efforts are:
distributed computing environment (DCE) specifications
object request broker (ORB) open database connectivity (ODBC)

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A Look to the Future

Operating system and application software evolution is placing ever higher demands for disk, memory, and processing. These increasing demands together with a dependence on desktop computing have the following consequences:
Newer, higher capacity computers are needed to replace older, lower capacity computers. Existing computers need upgrading to accommodate new software. Installing and supporting distributed applications can be expensive. Managing centralized systems is easier than managing decentralized systems.

In an effort to trim the costs associated with software evolution, some companies are adopting the use of thin clients and server clusters.
1-176

A Look to the Future (cont.)

A thin client is a stripped-down microcomputer. The function of the thin client is to provide basic input and output much like the terminals in the earlier centralized host computer architectures. A cluster servers consists of two or more servers operating in concert with each other. The benefits of the then client architecture are:
Lower costs because the thin clients are less expensive to buy Obsolescence is not as likely for thin clients because they do not need to keep pace with expanding software needs Software distribution and maintenance is simpler when restricted to the servers Management and control of applications and data is easier in a centralized architecture
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Thin Client Architecture

Server Cluster High-speed Interface Between Servers

Database (SQL) Servers

File/Print Servers

Application Servers

Thin Clients Terminal Server

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Assignment/Exercise 5/6: Local/Wide Area Networks

Who is Robert M. Metcalfe? What is/are his contribution/s to the field of local area networks (LANs)? Read Metcalfe and Boggs paper entitled Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 19, pp. 395-404, July 1976 and comment on its relevance or irrelevance as far as local area networking is concerned in the 2000s. (Note: Metcalfe and Boggs original Ethernet paper is available for free in some Internet sites [use a search engine and search for the the article title - in quotation marks.])

Assignment/Exercise 5/6: Local/Wide Area Networks

What is the Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Committee 802? What are its functions and sub-committees? Describe the following (potential) wide area network physical/data link layer connection technologies:
plain old telephone system Leased line (64kbps, T1/E1, fractional T1/E1, etc.) Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL) Frame Relay Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

What is a repeater, a bridge, a switch, a router and a gateway? In what OSI layer does each of these devices functions? Submit: a 2-4 page write-up of your findings (be brief but concise!) Due: 19/26 Jan. 2002

Assignment/Exercise 5/6: Local/Wide Area Networks

Familiarize with USENET Newsgroups related to local area networks, that is:
comp.dcom.lans.ethernet comp.dcom.lans.fddi comp.dcom.lans.novell comp.dcom.lans.token-ring comp.dcom.lans.misc etc

Tip: For starters, read the Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) for each area. Where can you access USENET News? A lot of sites in the Internet:
Example: http://www.google.com (then click on Groups)

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